Refining India June 2026 Issue

June 2026 REFINING INDIA

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Contents

June 2026

2 Re-engineering refineries: India’s shift toward renewable-driven operations Manoj Sharma

Role of energy management system in GHG reduction S R Udayan and Dipak D Shukla RIL Jamnagar

11 Emerging technologies for low-CI syngas: Part 2

Ajay Misra Sr. Consultant (Fertilizers & Petrochemicals)

17 Hydrocarbon removal from sour water systems Mathews Thundyil, David Seeger, and Arvind Chaturvedi Transcend Solutions

23 Antifouling solution to improve preheat exchanger efficiency Eswararao Doni, Raghava Krishna Kanala, and Sairamu Madala Hindustan Petroleum Green R&D Centre (HPGRDC)

29 Revamping CDU-VDU configurations Ramanayya Gorle, Grandhi Srivardhan, Narendra Kumar Paladugu, and Anil Kumar Engineers India Limited

39 Mass transfer technologies for continued growth Patricia Forero Merichem Technologies, LLC

43 India’s potential as a global leader in green hydrogen Ishita Bansal

49 H₂-ready process burners Eric Pratchard Zeeco Inc

53 Improved DHDT efficiency with AI-based inferential prediction Susanta Sadhukhan BPCL Kochi Refinery

57 Advancing slurry oil clarification with electrostatic separation Victor M Scalco General Atomics

© 2026. The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the copyright owner. The opinions and views expressed by the authors in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher and while every care has been taken in the preparation of all material included the publisher cannot be held responsible for any statements, opinions or views or for any inaccuracies.

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Re-engineering refineries: India’s shift toward renewable-driven operations

Editor Manoj Sharma editor@refiningindia.com +91 989 9077 595 Managing Editor Rachel Storry

rachel.storry@emap.com tel +44 (0)7786 136440 Sub-Editor Lisa Harrison lisa.harrison@emap.com Graphics Peter Harper Business Development Director Paul Mason info@decarbonisationtechnology.com tel +44 844 5888 771 Managing Director Richard Watts richard.watts@emap.com

The 2026 Iran-US conflict has heavily impacted Middle Eastern oil infrastructure, creating the largest global energy security challenge in history. Iran’s closure of the Strait of Hormuz disrupted ~20% of global oil supply. The supply shock caused oil prices to rise significantly, with estimates indicating a

potential long-term, high-price environment. The conflict makes India’s energy supply chains vulnerable. While temporary fixes include increasing imports from alternate sources, such as Russia, West Africa, and North and Latin America, long-term resilience depends on accelerating sustainable refining. India’s refining sector is no longer a passive consumer of fossil energy; it is actively evolving into a testbed for advanced renewable energy integration. What distinguishes the current phase of transition is not just ambition, but the scale of real, on- ground implementations across major Public Sector (PSU) and Private refiners. These initiatives signal a structural shift from incremental efficiency improvements to deep decarbonisation pathways anchored in renewable energy. Indian oil refiners have launched a multi-pronged ‘Green Transition’ to achieve net-zero operational emissions by 2040-2046. These initiatives focus on diversifying into green hydrogen, increasing biofuels blending, scaling renewable energy, and pioneering carbon capture technologies to decarbonise a traditionally hard-to-abate sector. At the forefront of this transformation is the large-scale deployment of green hydrogen within refinery operations. Hydrogen is vital for hydrocracking and desulphurisation, yet its conventional production via steam methane reforming is highly carbon-intensive. Indian refiners have now moved decisively toward renewable hydrogen substitution. Multiple pilot and demonstration plants for green hydrogen have already been commissioned by some Indian oil and gas companies. These are crucial for de-risking technologies such as electrolysers, storage systems, and renewable integration architectures before full- scale deployment. Projects are being developed on a long-term build-own-operate model and are designed to directly replace grey hydrogen used in refinery processes. Beyond hydrogen, refiners are advancing renewable-based fuel production pathways, particularly in sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) and biofuels. India reached its 20% ethanol blending target in 2025, five years ahead of schedule. As of April 2026,

EMAP, 10th Floor Southern House Wellesley Grove, Croydon CR0 1XG

Cover Story Indian refineries are transitioning into integrated energy complexes

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the government is proposing rules for E85 and E100 (85% and 100% ethanol). A major PSU refinery has plans to produce 30,000 tonnes per year of SAF from used cooking oil, leveraging renewable feedstocks and hydrogen integration. Additionally, refiners are exploring co-processing of non-edible oils and alcohol-to-jet fuel technologies, embedding renewables directly into the product slate. These initiatives represent a critical evolution: from using renewable energy as a utility input to embedding it within refinery outputs. Another major application under implementation is the expansion of renewable power generation integrated with refinery operations. State-run Indian Oil Corporation (IOCL) announced a target of adding 31 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2031 through a mix of organic growth, joint ventures (JVs), and mergers and acquisitions (M&As). IOCL has already signed Memorandum of Understandings (MoUs) with several renewable energy firms and is engaged in active discussions for further expansion. In parallel, state-run BPCL is pursuing a JV with Sembcorp to develop integrated renewable energy and green hydrogen projects in India, including refinery-linked applications. Such partnerships highlight a strategic shift: refiners are increasingly collaborating with renewable developers to access technology, capital, and operational expertise, rather than building capabilities entirely in-house. Advanced renewable integration is also evident in the development of compressed biogas (CBG) ecosystems under initiatives such as Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT). Multiple CBG plants are being set up that convert agricultural waste into fuel, which can be blended into refinery streams or distributed via existing infrastructure. This not only reduces lifecycle emissions but also links rural biomass supply chains with industrial energy demand, creating a circular energy economy. Equally significant is the electrification of refinery utilities using renewable power. While high- temperature process heat remains difficult to electrify fully, auxiliary systems, such as pumps, compressors, and low-pressure steam generation, are increasingly powered by renewable electricity. Combined with digital energy management systems, refiners are optimising load profiles to align with renewable generation patterns, thereby improving overall energy efficiency.

However, these advancements are not without constraints. The cost of green hydrogen, although declining, still exceeds that of grey hydrogen, necessitating policy support and carbon pricing mechanisms. Infrastructure challenges also persist, particularly around renewable power evacuation, storage, and electrolyser supply chains. Moreover, integrating intermittent renewable energy into highly optimised, continuous refining operations requires sophisticated control systems and operational flexibility. Yet, the trajectory is undeniable: Indian refineries are transitioning from fossil-centric processing hubs into integrated energy complexes that combine hydrocarbons with renewable energy, hydrogen, and bio-based feedstocks. This transition is part of a coordinated national strategy, with ongoing projects already underway. The policy landscape in India is evolving to support this transition. Initiatives like the National Green Hydrogen Mission, renewable purchase obligations, and production-linked incentives for electrolyser manufacturing are creating a conducive environment. Financial tools like green bonds and sustainability-linked loans are helping refiners access capital for low-carbon investments. In conclusion, the Indian refining sector is entering a phase where advanced renewable applications are moving from conceptual frameworks to industrial-scale implementation. Integration of green hydrogen, renewable power, biofuels, and digital optimisation is reshaping the operational and economic logic of refining. As these projects mature, they will not only reduce emissions but also redefine India’s position in the global energy landscape, transforming its refineries into hubs of low-carbon innovation and resilience. Manoj Sharma is an executive leader with more than 35 years of experience in petroleum refining, petrochemical operations, and strategic management. He has proven expertise in refinery optimisation, green initiatives (CCUS, green H₂, biofuels), crude oil trading, risk management, and digital transformation. He has a strong background in international business, process engineering, and corporate governance as a board director. He holds an International MBA from the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and a BE in chemical engineering from Punjab University, Chandigarh.

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www.zwICK-aRmaTuRen.de

DOUBLE BLOCK & BLEED VALVE TRI-BLOCK

Role of energy management system in GHG reduction How energy monitoring and conservation support net-zero targets by providing valuable insights to enhance efficiency, reduce emissions, and save costs

S R Udayan and Dipak D Shukla RIL Jamnagar

E nergy conservation and energy efficiency improvement are essential today. Environmental, social and governance (ESG) is important for sustainable business practices in a dynamic business scenario. Strong ESG performance fosters increased trust among stakeholders. A petroleum refinery or petrochemical complex consists of multiple process units. These facilities are characterised by significant Opex, particularly related to energy consumption, which includes fuel, power, and steam. Since energy prices are highly volatile, refineries and petrochemical units face challenges in reducing their fuel costs. Industrial energy management is also essential in today’s world, as it helps reduce the carbon footprint for future generations and enables sustainable business practices. Energy management and efficiency are vital to manufacturing performance now and in the future. While various incentive- and penalty-based mechanisms have been developed in the country for energy efficiency and conservation, challenges persist to achieve and, more importantly, sustain the feat in the dynamic business environment. While conventional tools and techniques have helped reduce the fuel bill, in the future, green initiatives, innovative projects, and in-house zero-cost optimisation will be the key actions to ensure sustainability. The increase in global surface temperatures poses a significant challenge. Strategic planning is a critical process that connects an organisation's vision and mission to its goals, transforming them into actionable short-

and long-term plans or business objectives. The best practices adopted by the Jamnagar Complex (Jamnagar Refinery and integrated petrochemical and petcoke gasification complex) through systematic development and deployment processes are highlighted below. Importance of design to achieve maximum efficiency The Jamnagar Complex is the largest site in the Reliance Group. Incorporating Pinch technology from the design stage helps to reduce both hot and cold utilities across every process unit of the complex: • Feed/effluent heat exchangers in major hydroprocessing units facilitate heat integration of fractionator outlet product streams with crude inlet or secondary process unit feed. “ Energy management and efficiency are vital to manufacturing performance now and in the future ” • Crude oil/products heat integration to maximise heat recovery and thus a reduction in steam and fuel consumption. • Overhead heat recovery from fractionators/ distillation columns to preheat feed, minimising steam preheating or fuel heating in the process heater. • Steam generation from the waste heat of the fractionator pumparound circuit. • Flare gas recovery through compressor and use as fuel gas, minimising the net flare quantity. • Thermal coupling between two process

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units, such as the crude and vacuum gas oil hydrotreater, vacuum residue, and crude unit. • Maximising hot stream in the downstream process unit to minimise double energy penalties, reducing the need for cooling through fin fan coolers and heating again via steam heaters or process fuel heaters. • An air preheater for the furnace to preheat the combustion air with hot flue gases exiting the furnace stack. • Scale is crucial, as ensuring a design margin in the size of equipment allows for extended capacity with minimal energy consumption. • Zero effluent discharge at the complex maximises the recycling and reuse of water, especially treated water make-up in cooling towers and cooling tower blowdown recovery. • Condensate recovery system captures high-level steam condensate and flashes it to produce low-level steam. This creates a closed-loop system, where the blowdown and condensate are finally recovered to minimise heat and condensate losses. • High-efficiency trays are installed in many distillation columns to improve mass transfer efficiency and reduce reboiler and condenser duty. Role of ISO 50001 energy management system (EnMS) • Implementation of ISO 50001 across the Jamnagar site. • Energy management policy signed off by top management. • Following the standard and procedure with respect to the energy management system. • Rigorous monitoring of significant energy users. • Deployment of internal and external audits for continuous improvement.

• Dovetailing ISO 50001 from top to bottom with timely review and objective and target fixation. • Plant-wide EnMS coordinator for effective deployment. Implementation of best practices Energy monitoring system • Energy key performance indicators (KPI) monitoring through automated digital dashboards (see Figure 1 ) and management information systems (MIIS) gives a competitive advantage by enabling continuous tracking of energy KPIs. This facilitates proactive and corrective actions to reduce fuel costs effectively. • Furnace efficiency, polytropic efficiency monitoring of turbines and compressors, and flare loss monitoring. • Norms versus actual performance monitoring of steam, power, and fuel variance, along with root cause and corrective action. • Hot and cold streams monitoring of intermediate streams to reduce the double energy penalty for cooling and reheating. • Captive Power Plant (CPP) heat rate and cogeneration efficiency monitoring ensure a lower fuel bill. • Energy real-time optimiser (ERTO) for hourly fuel bill optimisation. Fuel mix and power mix usage, along with renewable power intake, are used to reduce the fuel bill. • Establishing annual energy targets through effective software and thorough preparation for all energy utilities. This includes analysing best- in-class and benchmarked performance to set ambitious targets aimed at reducing operating costs. • Monitoring and tracking fuel usage and losses at each site to proactively take corrective and preventive actions. Salient best practices for monitoring include • Establishing fuel and loss (F&L) targets in the annual operating plan (AOP). • Monitoring and predicting heat exchanger fouling, as well as tracking flow and velocity. • Manufacturing Executive Council review of F&L. • Performing reviews at the cluster president and site president levels.

Figure 1 Energy dashboard

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Steam leaks

Rotary equipment

Heat exchanger

Furnace

PSV/are

Distillation columns

Insulation

Figure 2 Diversified audits

• Analysing deviations between expected norms and actual performance. • Reviewing historical fuel and loss analysis and action plan. • Identifying and pursuing AOP energy conservation (ENCON) projects. • Linking performance to energy reduction and flare reduction targets. • Analysing start-up/shutdown fuel and flare, comparing planned versus actual outcomes. Auditing Diversified audits to assess the performance and reduce the fuel bill (see Figure 2 ): • Furnace audit. • Pressure safety valves (PSVs) and control valves (CVs) for flare-connected valves passing audit. • Steam trap audit for identification of leakages. • Heat exchanger fouling check audit. • Mandatory energy audit. • Process flow diagram (PFD) audit. • External steam leak and furnace audit. • Insulation audit. Benchmarking Continuous international benchmarking is used to identify any gaps and develop an action plan to bridge them. Internal benchmarking and knowledge sharing across sites help to reduce energy consumption and its carbon footprint. Additionally, they facilitate the sharing and institutionalisation of past performance to set standards and exceed targets. Statutory compliance: RCO, CCTS, PAT – Energy Conservation Act RIL JMD refineries have completed Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) targets of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and

earned E-certificates. In the ongoing drive to reduce its carbon footprint, RIL JMD refineries and the C 2 complex are actively participating in the BEE Carbon Credit trading scheme (CCTS), making all necessary efforts to meet stringent targets. The Renewable Consumption Obligation (RCO) scheme is another key focus for JMD Obligated Entities (OEs) to maximise RE consumption. At the RIL JMD Dhirubhai Ambani Green Energy Complex, four gigafactories and a solar PV manufacturing facility have been developed as part of an energy transition strategy aimed at achieving the net-zero goal. Achieving significant E-certificates during “ Internal benchmarking and knowledge sharing across sites help to reduce energy consumption and its carbon footprint ” the PAT cycle marks a milestone in national benchmarking. Moving forward, the goal at RIL JMD Refineries is to achieve the CCTS targets and reduce carbon footprint. Sustainability and energy conservation are two sides of the same coin. In-house competency development The development of certified managers/auditors is a key focus at RIL JMD, supported by in- house coaching and external facilitators. Each year, competencies are enhanced by training an increasing number of certified energy managers and auditors, creating a win-win situation for both the workforce and the RIL JMD site. Additionally, a mandatory energy awareness programme is in place for new hires, trainees, and all employees engaged with assets, which

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distillation units at the Jamnagar Refinery. It has helped to reduce significant energy consumption in the upstream medium- pressure (MP) steam heater of the desalters in the crude preheat train. Divided wall column (DWC) for significant energy saving In the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit, the first column of the two sequential naphtha

Figure 3 Crude column overhead heat recovery

Figure 4 FCC naphtha splitter

splitters was modified to a DWC configuration to recover a high-purity, high-octane iC5 stream from the light naphtha (see Figure 4 ). FCC flue gas heat recovery project The flue gas cooler (FGC) (see Figure 5 ) downstream of the FCC power recovery turbine (PRT) is used to generate high-pressure (HP) steam from waste heat. However, the temperature of the flue gas leaving the FGC to the stack was higher.In addition, the significant import of MP steam from the captive power plant (CPP) for the FCC’s internal consumption is energy-intensive. New FGC modules were installed as part of an ENCON project downstream of the existing HP steam generator to recover waste heat exiting the stack. Glass air preheater installation An air preheater (APH) is typically installed in the flue gas circuit of a crude heater to recover heat from the flue gases and preheat the combustion air. This process helps reduce fuel costs. At the Jamnagar Refinery, existing APHs have been revamped for certain process unit to recover more waste heat. In the crude heater, a cast-iron APH followed by a glass APH has been installed, achieving significant energy savings. There are plans to replicate this setup in another crude processing train at the Jamnagar Refinery.

Hea r t cut naphtha

C naphtha

NS1

Feed from depentaniser

LCO

HCO

Heavy naphtha

Figure 4 Divided wall column (DWC)

helps maintain a strong emphasis on energy conservation.

ENCON case studies Overhead heat recovery project

The overhead vapours from the crude atmospheric column (see Figure 3 ) were partially condensed using an air cooler. To recover heat loss, helical baffle heat exchangers were installed to exchange heat between crude oil and overhead vapours. These exchangers are positioned in parallel and vertically to provide proper water washing on the naphtha side and to prevent corrosion. This design will increase the crude inlet temperatures to the downstream heat exchangers in the cold preheat train. This approach is replicated across all crude

Ceramic coating in process heaters Heat loss occurs from the inner surface of

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the process heaters in both the convection and radiation sections of the furnace. A high- emissivity ceramic coating is applied to the furnaces of refinery units to reduce heat loss and decrease overall heater fuel consumption. This helps to reduce the fuel bill of the JMD supersite. A few more salient best practices • Digital monitoring, especially in identifying the

Figure 5 FCC flue gas heat recovery

• Participation in national and international conferences to leverage a variety of best practices.

root cause of very small variances (less than 1 KTSRF), can lead to significant improvements in optimising processes against established norms. • Revision of norms whenever processes are stretched and when ENCON projects are implemented is essential for establishing dynamic targets and achieving best-in-class performance.

S R Udayan sivathanu.udayan@ril.com Dipak D Shukla dipak.d.shukla@ril.com

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Emerging technologies for low-CI syngas: Part 2 Part 2 focuses on six new pathways for low-carbon intensity syngas to provide a complete overview of syngas value chain technology

T his article is a sequel to Part 1, which March 2026 issue of Refining India magazine. Part 2 b riefly discusses two emerging low- carbon footprint technologies for carbon dioxide (CO 2) conversion to CO, exclusively utilising CO 2 and renewable power: CO 2 electrolysis and plasma CO 2 conversion. These technologies provide a platform for the production of low- carbon intensity (CI) syngas by simply mixing product carbon monoxide ( CO) with green hydrogen (H 2) . Additionally, two recent technologies are explored for direct catalytic hydrogenation of CO 2 into long-chain hydrocarbons (syncrude). This syncrude serves as an intermediate product outlined four emerging technologies for low-CI syngas pathways, published in the in the production of synthetic fuels through Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis. A single-step low-temperature (LT) co-electrolysis of CO2 into methanol, completely bypassing the syngas step, is also examined. Also, two very recent technologies based on an integrated gas-phase direct air carbon capture and utilisation (DACCU) flow reactor and a thermochemical electrified Tri-Converter are outlined. The former captures CO 2 from the air, concentrates it, and converts it into syngas using sunlight. The latter reforms mixtures containing CO₂, methane (CH₄), CO, and H₂ into syngas using a proprietary catalyst and renewable electricity. Lastly, details of a two-step chemical looping redox concept for producing syngas from the dry reforming of CH 4 and CO₂ are provided. These ten pathways complete the syngas value chain technology overview. Most, if not Ajay Misra Sr. Consultant (Fertilizers & Petrochemicals)

all, of these emerging technologies are currently at varying stages of ‘work-in-progress’, many having been initiated and pursued by start- up innovators and/or research institutions. The successful run of proof-of-concept and lab-/pilot-/demo-scale projects marks a major milestone in advancing efforts towards the commercial-scale production of low-CI syngas through fundamentally robust but technically challenging pathways. CO 2 electrolysis It is important to clarify the distinction between co-electrolysis and CO 2 electrolysis, as they are often confused. The key difference lies in the “ CO 2 electrolysis is the electrochemical reduction of CO 2 into CO, whereas co-electrolysis of CO 2 and water together achieves a more comprehensive conversion into a valuable syngas product ” reactants involved and the products generated. While co-electrolysis simultaneously electrolyses both CO 2 and H 2 O to produce syngas (CO + H 2), CO 2 electrolysis specifically targets the reduction of CO 2 to CO using renewable power. CO 2 electrolysis is the electrochemical reduction of CO 2 into CO, whereas co- electrolysis of CO 2 and water together achieves a more comprehensive conversion into a valuable syngas product. While different types of electrolysers, including solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC), proton exchange membrane (PEM), and liquid

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Using high energy density and selective activation, the plasma process has been found to be ideal for CO 2 conversion, operating at ambient temperatures and powered by renewable electricity, offering a sustainable and scalable solution for industrial decarbonisation. The plasma reactor design developed by D-CRBN can be switched on and off rapidly, allowing the use of intermittent power sources, typical of renewable energy. Containerised plug-and-play modular units are available for conversion capacities of up to 10 KTPA of CO2 into CO, which can be mixed with green H 2 in the desired ratio for the production of syngas suitable for methanol or FT synthesis. With pilot-scale test results proving to be positive, the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of this technology is currently assessed as 5/6, steadily moving towards the implementation of an industrial-scale demo plant by Q1 2027, when they expect to reach TRL 7/8 – the last major milestone before full industrial-scale rollout. The Capex is purported to be 50% and Opex 30% lower than the reverse water-gas shift (rWGS) option, driven by high energy efficiency and an increased conversion rate. However, compared to the integrated 3-in-1 Plasma Boudouard Reactor process for syngas production, this process has a higher Opex due to the requirement of green H 2 , although Capex could be significantly lower, necessitating a comprehensive techno-commercial evaluation of both options to arrive at the most cost-effective and technically robust solution. Direct hydrogenation of CO 2 to long-chain hydrocarbons OXCCU’s direct hydrogenation process of CO 2 to long-chain deoxygenated hydrocarbons (syncrude) in a single step is a fairly new area of research.3 The vast majority of FT research over the last 100 years has focused on syngas (CO + H2) to fuels rather than using CO2 and H 2. Hence, the main focus of Power-to-Liquid (PtL) processes to date has been the two-step approach, where CO 2 is first converted to CO via the rWGS reaction, and then combined with H 2 to get to syngas, which can be used with conventional FT catalysts. The challenge is that, firstly, the rWGS step is expensive from both Capex and Opex

Air/CO enriched with O

CO + CO

Air/CO

SOEC electrolysis + ÷

Gas separation

CO product

CO (depleted) + CO

Figure 1 eCOs installation

bicarbonate, have been utilised for high- and low-temperature co-electrolysis by different technology providers, SOEC is the only currently known CO 2 electrolysis technology suitable for efficient CO2 -to-CO conversion. Since this emerging technology of CO 2 electrolysis is not widely employed or researched, for the purpose of this article, it would suffice to highlight that Topsoe’s proprietary CO 2 electrolysis process (eCOs) enables safe, efficient, and reliable on-site production of CO directly from captured or biogenic CO 2 using renewable power, as depicted in Figure 1 .1 “ Plasma conversion operates effectively even with diluted CO2 streams containing up to 50% N 2 , enabling integration with diverse waste streams and capture processes ” The product CO stream is mixed with green H 2 in the desired ratio to produce low-CI syngas. Built on a scalable, modular design, engineered eCOs modules can meet the needs of almost any facility that uses CO or CO + H 2 (syngas) in the downstream processes, regardless of industry or size, especially when decarbonisation is high on the agenda. Plasma CO 2 conversion This proprietary plasma-based process offered by start-up D-CRBN efficiently converts CO 2 into valuable CO by breaking the bond between carbon and oxygen (O2) without producing byproducts like carbon black.2 Plasma conversion operates effectively even with diluted CO 2 streams containing up to 50% N 2 , enabling integration with diverse waste streams and capture processes.

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perspectives, and secondly, it does not align well with the FT process. This is because rWGS is an endothermic reaction that operates at 600-750°C, while the FT reaction is a highly exothermic reaction that is normally kept down to 250-350ºC. The rWGS reaction requires a large energy input, which cannot be efficiently provided by the LT heat from the FT reaction. These challenges have been mitigated by the development of a patented, multifunctional heterogeneous catalyst by OXCCU, featuring a surface on which both reactions, rWGS and FT, can take place sequentially. The proprietary catalyst surface binds CO 2 and promotes FT chain growth reactions, resulting in the formation of long-chain hydrocarbons (syncrude) that can be upgraded/refined to produce SAF, renewable diesel, and more. OXCCU’s single-step PtL pathway via direct hydrogenation of CO 2 , eliminating the rWGS step, is focused on developing a simplified low- cost technology for decarbonising the mobility sector. However, it is still in the early stages of development (TRL 4/6), with its second demonstration plant likely to be operational in 2026. Direct single-step LT co-electrolysis to methanol In the direct CO 2 -to-methanol electrolysis pathway, CO 2 is reduced to methanol in a single step over a proprietary electrocatalyst. Reported byproducts during methanol synthesis include H 2 , CO, and formic acid (HCOOH), which are subsequently purified via pressure swing adsorption and distillation stages and recovered for sale.4 Oxylus Energy’s highly efficient and scalable low-temperature, low-pressure electrolyser technology utilises proprietary membrane, catalyst, and renewable power for direct electrochemical conversion of CO 2 and water to produce e-methanol, which can be used as a drop-in fuel or upgraded to jet fuel and other green petrochemicals. The company’s single-step CO 2 electrolyser eliminates the need for green H 2 and the rWGS step by using a cobalt-based catalyst to facilitate the chemical reaction needed to produce methanol. The catalyst sits inside the proprietary electrolyser, which uses renewable

electricity to split water and CO 2 molecules. Once the H 2 , O 2, and carbon atoms are separate, they combine to form methanol (CH 3 OH) and O 2 . All of this happens at standard room temperature and pressure, helping to keep costs down. Oxylus Energy offers a modular, scalable solution for industrial decarbonisation. It claims its technology enables the production of carbon- neutral, and even carbon-negative methanol, which is cost competitive with fossil-derived methanol. Another energy start-up, Prometheus Fuels, has developed a similar technology for direct single-step co-electrolysis, consisting of an integrated direct air capture (DAC) CO 2 unit and proprietary LT hydrocarbon electrolyser (Faraday Reactor) to produce e-methanol. The proprietary electrolyser, whose separator “ Direct single-step low-temperature co-electrolysis-to-methanol technology could be a game changer; however, it is still in an initial development phase ” between the anode and cathode is impregnated with a special catalyst, converts the H 2 , O 2, and carbon atoms to long-chain alcohols and oxygen. This process step is followed by a carbon nanotube membrane (Maxwell Core), which has nanotube pores embedded in the membrane wall to extract the fuel from the remaining water. The integrated process unit is termed a ‘Reverse Combustion Machine’, and the carbon-neutral methanol product can be used as a drop-in fuel or upgraded to synthetic gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel. This direct single-step LT co-electrolysis-to- methanol technology could be a game changer; however, it is still in an initial development phase, with scant technical information available in the public domain. The technology will require significant R&D efforts to reach commercial- scale deployment. The current maturity of the technology developed by Oxylus Energy is assessed to be TRL 3, while Prometheus Fuels is claiming a technology readiness of TRL 8/9 for its proprietary e-fuel production system. The company is currently looking for a suitable site

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”

CO2 release while enhancing photoconversion of released CO2. Synhelion’s Sun-to-Liquid technology uses solar energy to convert CO2, biomethane, and water into syngas and subsequently into syncrude via FT synthesis, which can be refined into renewable kerosene, diesel, and gasoline.7 Synhelion has successfully integrated its Sun- to-Liquid technology platform ‘DAWN’ that demonstrates its technologies on an industrial scale, validating its readiness for large-scale deployment. The world’s first industrial-scale solar fuel plant consists of a solar tower, solar receiver, thermochemical reactor, electric heater, and thermal energy storage system that enables cost-efficient solar fuel production around the clock. This industrial-scale demo plant is claimed to have been fully operational since June 2024 and produces several thousand litres of solar fuel per year, which has largely de-risked the technology and demonstrated its readiness for scale-up to commercial production levels (TRL 8). Aether Fuels’ thermochemical ‘syngas generation engine’ – electrified Tri-Converter – improves and streamlines the process where feedstocks (biogas, industrial off-gases, captured CO2, and green H2) and the internally recycled downstream byproducts are converted into syngas.8 This is achieved via novel catalysts and a reactor that uses renewable electricity instead of fossil fuels to generate the reaction heat. The Tri-Converter is best described as an electrified catalytic reforming reactor combining rWGS, steam methane reforming (SMR), and/ or dry reforming of methane and the conversion of recycled light hydrocarbons (C1-C4) from a downstream FT unit in a single intensified reactor to produce FT-grade syngas of desired H2/CO ratio from mixed carbon streams (CO₂, CH₄, CO, H₂). Where typical syngas production requires multiple reactors to convert the same mix of inputs, the Aether Aurora process employs just one. The streamlined equipment configuration reduces Capex, while the electrification innovations generate higher energy efficiency and yields than a conventional combustion reactor. In 2025, the company successfully built, operated, and validated its demo-scale (1 bpd) Tri-Converter skid in collaboration with GTI Energy (TRL 6).

Oxidation

2HO + CO

FeO/CeO

Fe 3 O 4 /CeO

Optimum operating window for the CL-DRM

2H + CO

CeFeO

2H + CO

Fe/CeO

FeC/CeO

Reduction

Figure 2 CL-DRM – redox concept schematic

for its first commercial-scale plant, which will produce 100 kt/year e-methanol.5 DACCU flow reactor and Tri-Converter This recent technology, currently under lab-scale research and development (TRL 2/3) stage, is conceptualised on the basis of an integrated gas-phase dual-bed direct air carbon capture and utilisation (DACCU) flow reactor that produces syngas (CO + H2) through on-site use of CO2 from DAC using sunlight without requiring high temperature or pressure.6 The reactor consists of a bed of solid silica-amine adsorbent to capture the CO2 and produce CO2-free air. Concentrated sunlight is used to release the captured CO2 and convert it to syngas over a bed of a silica/alumina-titania-cobalt bis(terpyridine) molecular semiconductor photocatalyst. The dual-bed DACCU reactor operates in a diurnal cycle, where CO2 is chemically captured from the air during the nighttime while letting the other gases (for example, N 2 and O2) pass through. The captured CO2 is released as a concentrated stream during the daytime to be photochemically converted into synthesis gas. DAC of CO2 is enabled by a solid-phase silica-polyamine CO2 adsorber that desorbs the captured CO2 at elevated temperatures (80-100°C) provided by photothermal solar heating. A parabolic trough solar collector is utilised to concentrate sunlight to heat the adsorbent for efficient

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Chemical looping dry reforming/ electrochemical reforming of methane Although chemical looping dry reforming of methane (CL-DRM) builds on the same chemistry as conventional SMR and dry reforming of methane (DRM), it is a potential alternative, which uses a two-step redox concept through recyclable oxygen storage materials (oxygen carriers) as intermediates. CL- DRM utilises a fundamentally different process configuration to produce syngas with an H2 / CO ratio of 2 during the reduction-oxidation step, highlighted in Figure 2 .9 , 10 CO2 electrolysis is performed at the cathode, whereas electrochemical oxidation of CH4 is performed at the anode. Here, the lattice oxygen of a solid metal oxide (for example, iron oxide) is used to partially oxidise the CH4 to H2 and CO. The regeneration of the reduced metal oxide can be performed in a subsequent step by oxidation with CO 2, producing additional CO. The CL-DRM process is highly advantageous from an environmental point of view, since two greenhouse gas molecules (CH4 and CO 2 ) are converted into valuable products (H2 and CO). The main challenge of CL-DRM using iron oxide as an oxygen carrier is to control the product selectivity to avoid both the complete oxidation of CH4 and the deposition of carbon on the carrier. Furthermore, iron oxides undergo significant chemical, thermal, and physical stresses as oxides cycle between fully oxidised and fully reduced conditions, limiting their longevity. In this respect, it is well known that mixing iron oxides with different refractory oxides, such as ceria, alumina, silica, titania, and zirconia, improves their resistance to sintering at high temperatures. Among the different iron-based O 2 carriers, mixed oxides of iron and cerium appear to be attractive for chemical looping reforming processes, owing to their high capacity for storing O 2 and to the unique redox properties of cerium. Whereas minimisation of coke formation can be achieved by limiting the duration of the reduction step of the CL-DRM or its removal in reaction with CO 2 via the reverse Boudouard reaction, producing a high-purity CO stream. An efficient electrochemical reforming of CH4 /CO 2 to produce syngas in a solid

oxide electrolyser is under development, where redox-stable perovskite-type La0.75Sr0.25Cr0.5Mn0.5O3 (LSCM) impregnated with a nano catalyst such as nickel, ruthenium or vanadium is used both as cathode and anode. The strong metal/oxide interface interactions deliver enhanced high-temperature stability and coking resistance for dry reforming of CH4 with CO 2 . CL-DRM technology is currently in its initial stages of development, and its successful implementation depends on future research directions for developing high-performance oxygen carriers. Key takeaways This article is not intended to be a compendium of syngas technologies but rather to provide a high-level overview of available technology options for the production of low-CI syngas, including information about leading technology “ The CL-DRM process is highly advantageous from an environmental point of view, since two greenhouse gas molecules (CH 4 and CO) are converted into valuable products (H 2 and CO) ” providers. The reader is afforded the necessary toolkit to objectively evaluate all available technology options and make an informed decision to pursue the pathway most suited to their need based on risk appetite, feedstocks, utilities and resources available, and the desired end product. For emerging technologies, it is critical to rigorously evaluate the pros and cons. Notwithstanding the aforesaid, a comprehensive techno-economic feasibility report (TEFR) and/or front-end engineering design (FEED) by a competent consultant is essential before converging on the most optimum technology pathway to be pursued, preceding final investment decision (FID) on a complex project for the production of low-CI syngas. VIEW REFERENCES

Ajay Misra arsim.yaja@gmail.com

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How refiners can turn challenges into opportunities beyond 2030 THE FCCU IN TRANSITION Strategies to enhance the profitability of unit operations

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• G lobal market trends: fuels and petrochemicals • Regulatory drivers • Global refining trends • Process economics • Process objectives • FCCU process/operations interface • Operating strategies • FCCU gas plant improvements • Catalyst performance requirements • Emissions control systems • Rotating equipment constraints • Hardware design for higher severity operations • Cost escalation • Biomass-based FCC feedstocks VALUABLE INSIGHT ON

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Hydrocarbon removal from sour water systems A hydrocarbon and solids removal system allows stripper columns to operate as designed without exchanger fouling

Mathews Thundyil, David Seeger, and Arvind Chaturvedi Transcend Solutions

S our water systems can be found in most refineries and gas plants around the world. Sour water is generated from many sources throughout the facility and is accumulated in large tanks for treatment within the sour water system. In this system, light hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulphide (H₂S), and ammonia (NH₃) are stripped from the sour water. The stripped gas is often sent to the Claus unit reaction furnace for destruction and conversion to nitrogen and sulphur. Examples of sources of sour water within the facility include:1 • Hydrotreater or hydrodesulphurisation units, where sulphur-containing hydrocarbons are reacted with hydrogen and H₂S is formed, and the hot gases from the reactors are quenched with water to reduce the temperature. • The reflux water from the regenerator in the amine unit can be a source of ammonia. • Steam is used in various processes throughout the refinery, where it may contact NH₃ and H₂S. When condensed and recovered, the condensed water can become sour, containing H₂S and NH₃. • Wash water used throughout the facility may contact NH₃ and H₂S and become sour. • Water is recovered in the crude, fluidised catalytic cracker, and coker units, and is also likely sour water. These and many other sources of sour water are accumulated from throughout the facility and pumped into feed tanks to be treated in the sour water system. An examination of the various sources of sour water quickly indicates that it is probably highly contaminated with salts, solid particulates, and hydrocarbons. One method of handling these contaminants is to accumulate the water in large holding tanks, hoping that the solid

particulates will settle to the bottom while the hydrocarbons separate and float to the surface, where they can be skimmed.2 The solid particles are removed during turnaround when the tanks can be cleaned. The issue is that the approach does not work well, as solid particulates and hydrocarbons are not separated in the large holding tanks. Instead, they are pumped into the sour water system, perpetuating problems within it and others connected to it. This ongoing problem at the source of contamination inspired the design of the Torsep system, which aims to remove contaminants from the sour water system more effectively. Case study A refiner on the US Gulf Coast was forced to clean the heat exchanger in the sour water system approximately every three to six months due to fouling. The operators at the facility had come to accept this problem as the normal, routine course of operation. During a meeting to review operations and maintenance, it was discussed that operations should not have to accept heat exchanger cleaning every three months as routine and that the problem could be fixed. It was suspected that the problem was not only solid particulate fouling but also hydrocarbon fouling on the surfaces of the heat exchanger. To better define and understand the issues, in situ solids-loading samples3 and bottle samples were taken from its sour water system. The results of this testing revealed that both problems were occurring. This refiner originally took the approach of holding the sour water in large tanks with a long residence time (one to two days). However, even

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with that residence time, the solids did not settle, and the hydrocarbons did not fully separate from the sour water. As the unit operated, hydrocarbons and solids were pumped with the sour water from the tanks to the feed/effluent heat exchanger and eventually to the stripper column. The heat exchanger fouled with coked hydrocarbons and solid particulates sticking to its surface, reducing heat transfer efficiency and necessitating cleaning. To perform the cleaning, the system had to be shut down, drained, purged, and cleaned before reassembly. The cleaning process typically takes about a week, incurring significant operating expense for the refiner. As a result, the refinery staff were keen to find a solution. It was suggested that they remove the solids and separate the hydrocarbon liquid phase from the water. With a simple, cost-effective contaminant removal system, provided on a rental basis, they could evaluate this approach to solving their exchanger fouling problem. If successful, they could then consider installing a permanent system in the future. Torsep contamination removal system The system includes the Envision emulsion separator for liquid-liquid coalescing, where the oil phase is separated from the bulk sour water phase. Upstream of the emulsion separator is an Endur Tetra separator for the removal of solid particulates. The first stage removes solid particulates and protects the downstream emulsion separator from rapid plugging. The two separators are described in more detail in the following sections. Endur Tetra solid separator The operating cost of fluid quality management is highly dependent on the choice of element and vessel size. The vessel needs to be large enough and contain sufficient filter elements to allow for a reasonable time between filter changeouts. However, the larger the vessel, the higher the capital cost. Therefore, the Capex of the vessel must be weighed against the Opex of filter changeouts. In this opportunity, an available rental unit was utilised, and the vessel size resulted in an expected changeout frequency of one to two weeks. This was sufficient to keep Opex low.

For solid particulate control, a suitable media configuration was applied to capture and retain the particulate contaminants in the inlet liquid flow with a defined level of efficiency. The media is a locked-pore configuration of cross-linked fibres, which prevents particulate release under higher differential pressure conditions. In the Endur Tetra separator, *1 liquid enters the vessel through the inlet nozzle at the top, it is diverted by the inlet baffle, and passes through the solid particulate filter elements from outside to in. The particulate is retained by the media, and the clean liquid passes through the media into the riser, down the centre riser support, through the tube sheet, and into the outlet chamber, exiting through the outlet nozzle. Some of the features of the separator and the filter elements include: u Preferred flow configuration : The separator elements flow from outside to in. This flow configuration maximises dirt capture within a given vessel size, thereby allowing the lowest overall Opex for a given Capex. v Optimised element configuration : The element maximises contamination holding capacity while also maximising packing density within a housing. w Ergonomic : The elements are approximately 40in long and come with an ergonomic handle that allows easy removal and installation. x Coreless element configuration : The Tetra element features a coreless design, making it lighter and providing a less strenuous changeout process. The coreless design will also have reduced disposal volume. Envision emulsion separator The Envision separator *1 is a single-stage, liquid emulsion separation system. The separator elements can capture and coalesce small, discontinuous phase droplets from a continuous phase, which may be aqueous or hydrocarbon in nature. In this case, the refiner needed to remove hydrocarbons from the sour water. The liquid enters the vessel through the inlet nozzle located at the centre of the vessel head on one side. It travels through the tube sheet, down the riser, and through the separator element from inside to out. As the liquid passes through the media of the separator element, small, single-micron droplets of the hydrocarbon phase

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