Decarbonisation Technology May 2025 Issue

May 2025 Decarbonisati n Technolo gy Powering the Transition to Sustainable Fuels & Energy May 2023

Powering the Transition to Sustainable Fuels & Energy

ROUTES TO SAF RENEWABLE HYDROGEN & HYDROGEN SAFETY

ISCC CERTIFICATION DECARBONISATION OF REFINING VALUE CHAINS

RENEWABLES INTEGRATION IN EXISTING REFINERIES SUSTAINABLE AVIATION AND MARINE FUELS

WASTE RECYCLING PROCESSES UTILISATION OF CAPTURED CARBON

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Contents

May 2025

5 Securing sustainability claims: certification and credit transfers Laura Günther International Sustainability & Carbon Certification

Finance, technology, and policy for green investment Valentina Dedi KBR

Can advanced adsorbents make direct air capture scalable? Vahide Nuran Mutlu SOCAR Türkiye Research & Development and Innovation

Solid-state adsorbent technology for carbon capture Nigel Campbell and Shane Telfer Captivate Technology

SAF production via the HEFA route: chemistry and catalysis Jaap Bergwerff Ketjen

Unlocking the fuel of the future: integration strategies for eSAF Zinovia Skoufa Johnson Matthey Leigh Abrams Honeywell UOP

Catalysts for renewable fuels production Henrik Rasmussen Topsoe

Economically viable refinery decarbonisation scenario Juan Carlos Latasa López IDOM Consulting

Woody residue gasification: a dual solution for decarbonisation Shrinivas Lokare and Andrew Kramer SunGas Renewables Inc. Bryan Tomsula CPFD Software

Advancing the circular economy for waste plastic Geoff Brighty Mura Technology

68 Solutions for heat tracing in the decarbonisation of cement industries Koen Verleyen Chemelex

© 2025. The entire content of this publication is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise – without the prior permission of the copyright owner. The opinions and views expressed by the authors in this publication are not necessarily those of the editor or publisher and while every care has been taken in the preparation of all material included the publisher cannot be held responsible for any statements, opinions or views or for any inaccuracies.

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Discover mature and reliable technologies to produce Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF)

The Energy Institute Statistical Review of World Energy 2024 shows that carbon emissions reached a new record in 2023. Although renewables are growing, so is the global energy demand. Consumption of coal continues to increase in the Asia Pacific region, accounting for 80% of global output, whereas coal consumption in both Europe and North America fell. Coal accounted for 35% of electricity production, with gas at 23% and renewables rising to 30%. These figures reflect slow progress with the energy transition, but in part this is due to the scale needed. As often stated in my forewords for Decarbonisation Technology magazine and elsewhere, investments in developing the technologies required for the transition indicate that we have the necessary technologies; now, we need to deploy them at scale. As such, I found the theme of the Baker Hughes annual meeting held earlier this year, ‘Progress at Scale’, to be spot on. We now need to see exponential growth in the deployment of available technologies and solutions. Flaring is one of the biggest sources of emissions from oil and gas operations. Carbon dioxide emissions from flaring increased by 7% in 2023, while methane emissions from pipelines and industrial processes also increased (the reported increase may, in part, be because monitoring and reporting of such emissions has also improved). Most gas production companies have pledged zero methane emissions by 2030. The technologies and know-how to reduce flaring and manage pipeline leaks are critical in meeting this challenge. Carbon capture, utilisation and storage is critical for the oil and gas industry and other energy-intensive industries. The evolution of industrial clusters can de-risk investment in developing carbon dioxide transport and storage solutions. In the EU, the ReFuelEU regulation will drive the utilisation of captured carbon dioxide for the production of e-fuels, which will go some way to restoring a healthy carbon cycle. As one of the articles in this edition illustrates, integrating the production of e-fuels with existing refinery processes can be financially attractive. Building capacity for low carbon intensity hydrogen necessitates the deployment of a range of technologies, including electrolysis, reforming with carbon capture, and methane pyrolysis. We have to maximise our chances of achieving the scale needed and should not be technology prescriptive. Progress with the energy transition depends heavily on the US, both as one of the largest sources of emissions and on leadership from US universities and companies in developing technology solutions and delivering engineering expertise. We must make ‘progress at scale’.

Managing Editor Rachel Storry

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Cover Story Mura’s Wilton Advanced Plastic Recycling Facility. Courtesy: Mura Technology

Dr Robin Nelson

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The world’s energy system is changing. To solve the challenges, Shell Catalysts & Technologies is developing its Decarbonisation Solutions portfolio to provide integrated value chains of technologies to help industries navigate the energy transition. Our experienced teams of consultants and engineers draw on Shell’s owner–operator– licensor expertise to co-create pathways and technology solutions to address your specific decarbonisation ambitions – creating a cleaner way forward together. Learn more at shell.com/decarbonisation. Accelerating decarbonisation solutions together

Securing sustainability claims: certification and credit transfers The role of certification in promoting the credibility of SAF and alternative marine fuels, with a special focus on the ISCC Credit Transfer System

Laura Günther International Sustainability & Carbon Certification

T he global push for decarbonisation has placed significant pressure on ‘hard-to- abate’ sectors and major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such as aviation and maritime transport. International and national climate goals targeting net-zero emissions by 2050 and voluntary programmes such as the Science Based Targets initiative (SBTi) are intensifying the need for drastic reductions in carbon footprints. Given that direct electrification poses challenges within these sectors, sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) and alternative marine fuels (AMF) present essential and non-negotiable options for achieving ambitious climate targets. SAF is a renewable, non-fossil-derived fuel

from biomass, waste oils, and fats, or e-fuel generated using renewable electricity, which can reduce emissions by up to 80% compared to conventional jet fuel ( The University of Manchester, 2023 ). SAF’s chemical and physical properties are nearly identical to those of traditional jet fuel. This compatibility allows SAF to be mixed with conventional fuels in varying proportions, utilise the same supply infrastructure, and require no modifications to aircraft or engines, making it a ‘drop-in’ fuel technology. To ensure technical and safety standards, SAF must be produced according to one of the ASTM-approved methods ( ASTM, 2023 ), the most widely used of which is hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA),

ICAO EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Recognition and surveillance

Reporting

Surveillance

ISCC

Accreditation

Accreditation body

Certication body

International Sustainability & Carbon Certication

Co-operation

Development of certication requirements and standards

Reporting I ntegrity assessment

ISCC

Farm/plantation, point of origin/ renewable electricity unit

Blend point/ trader (if applicable)

First gathering point, collecting point

Processing unit

Market

Figure 1 Interplay between regulation, accreditation, certification standard, and certification body

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producing, and scaling alternative low-carbon fuels and adopting these solutions throughout global supply chains and policies. As part of the European Union’s (EU) Renewable Energy Directive (RED), which sets targets for the EU’s renewable energy use and GHG reductions, the ReFuelEU Aviation Regulation focuses on reducing aviation’s carbon footprint and accelerating the transition to sustainable aviation practices, including blending targets for SAF. Beginning in 2025, at least 2% of all aviation fuel used within the EU must be SAF, gradually increasing to a minimum of 70% SAF in all EU airports by 2050 (EUR-Lex, 2023) . Additionally, the regulation sets specific sub-targets for the utilisation of synthetic aviation fuels derived from renewable hydrogen or captured carbon. Similarly, the FuelEU Maritime Regulation aims to promote renewable, low-carbon fuels and clean energy technologies for ships to reduce GHG intensity. This regulation stipulates that the GHG intensity limit should decrease by 2% starting in 2025, with more ambitious reductions planned for subsequent years, ultimately achieving an 80% reduction by 2050 (EUR-Lex, 2023) . From the global perspective, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) established the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), aiming to stabilise net CO₂ emissions from international aviation at 2020 levels. To achieve this, the framework sets rules for monitoring, reporting, and verifying emissions, with a system to offset emissions via the use of credits, CORSIA Eligible Units, or the usage of SAF, neutralising the environmental impact of international aviation growth. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has established the IMO GHG Strategy, which aims to achieve net-zero GHG emissions from international shipping by 2050. According to projections from the Fourth IMO GHG Study, approximately 64% of the total CO₂ reduction in the shipping sector by 2050 is expected to come from the use of alternative low- or zero-carbon marine fuels ( IMO, 2020 ). Certification as a cornerstone for sustainable fuel production and traceability Sustainable fuels are defined by strict criteria that ensure their production is environmentally

SAF

AMF

IS C C EU

IS C C CORSIA ICAO CORSIA IS C C PLUS

RefuelEU A viation EU ETS FuelEU M ar i time UK ETS UK SAF M andate

Voluntary market SAF/AMF

converting waste oils and fats into SAF. Another rising process is alcohol-to-jet (AtJ), where alcohols such as ethanol and isobutanol are transformed into SAF. Drop-in AMFs include biofuels, e-fuels, and liquefied biogas (Bio- LNG). In contrast with SAF, non-drop-in AMFs, such as methanol, ammonia, and hydrogen, also play a crucial role in the sector. While these non-drop-in fuels offer greater long-term sustainability benefits, they involve significant investment in new technologies. Policies require both the adoption of alternative fuels and evidence that these fuels produce measurable sustainability outcomes. At the same time, market participants – ranging from producers to end consumers – increasingly seek transparency, accountability, and verified carbon footprint reductions throughout the supply chain. Rigorous certification systems like the International Sustainability & Carbon Certification (ISCC) confirm these standards are met. This article explores the role of certification in promoting the credibility of SAF and AMF, with a special focus on the ISCC Credit Transfer System (CTS), its structure, impact, and significance for stakeholders. The CTS enables the tracking and trading of SAF credits for verified carbon reductions within the voluntary market. From EU RED to CORSIA: policy-driven pathways to net-zero transport The aviation and maritime industries are considered among the most difficult to decarbonise due to their current heavy reliance on fossil fuels, each accounting for approximately 2-2.5% of global CO₂ emissions (IEA, 2025) (IEA, 2023) . Reducing emissions from these sectors requires developing, Figure 2 ISCC Certification schemes under which SAF and AMF can be certified (as of May 2025)

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Agricultural crops and crop residues

ISCC

First gathering point

Farm/ plantation

ISCC

PtX, RFNBOs, renewables

Processing unit

Blend point (if applicable)

Trader

Renewable electricity sources/units

Market

Waste, residue or byproducts

ISCC

Collecting point

Point of origin

Figure 3 Simplified SAF/AMF supply chains

responsible. Key factors include the selection of raw materials, life cycle emissions, land use impact, and traceability. Certification mandated by the EU RED and ICAO CORSIA demonstrates compliance with these requirements and documents traceability throughout the supply chain, covering feedstock identity, production processes, and chain of custody options. It increases transparency for governments, regulators, and consumers and provides clear and accessible information on the environmental impact of the fuel, the reduction of greenhouse gases, and the integrity of the supply chain. ISCC is the leading certification system for the EU renewable energy market, regulated by the RED. The system applies globally and encompasses all agricultural and forest biomass, biogenic waste and residues, non- biological renewable materials, and recycled carbon-based materials. Certification under ISCC can be utilised throughout the entire supply chain and is relevant to a wide array of sectors and markets. For this purpose, ISCC operates distinct certification systems, including ISCC EU, ISCC PLUS, and ISCC CORSIA, with the latter also being the leading certification system under the ICAO CORSIA framework. Accredited third-party Certification Bodies

(CBs) verify compliance with the certification requirements and issue certificates following successful auditing. Since 2011, ISCC EU has demonstrated compliance with the legal requirements for sustainability and GHG emissions savings criteria established by the RED. As of February 2025, it boasts 7,536 valid certificates ( ISCC, 2025 ), making it the largest of the three schemes. The ISCC PLUS certification was developed for voluntary markets such as food, feed, chemicals, plastics, packaging, and renewable energy sources outside the scope of the RED. With 5,545 valid certificates ( ISCC, 2025 ), it is the second-largest scheme. ISCC CORSIA, specifically designed to comply with the ICAO framework for SAF, has been recognised since 2020. Currently, it is the fastest-growing scheme, with a remarkable growth rate of 326% generated in 2024, when the number of certificates surged from 95 to 405 (ISCC, 2025) . This highlights SAF’s growing importance and interest among regulators, producers, airlines, and passengers.

Verifying every step: supply chain certification and mass balance

Certification ensures that every step in the SAF and AMF supply chains complies with robust

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Certified material

Segregated in bookkeeping

Market

Segregated in bookkeeping

Non-certied material

Figure 4 Mass balance approach in certified supply chains

sustainability and traceability standards. SAF can be certified under all three ISCC schemes, while AMF certification occurs under both ISCC EU and ISCC PLUS. Each actor in the supply chain handling the alternative material – whether involved in production, collection, processing, storage, or trading – must hold valid ISCC certification. The supply chain for SAF and AMF begins at the source and may vary depending on the feedstock type. For bio-based feedstocks, the journey starts at a farm or plantation. In the case of bio-circular materials from waste or residues of biological origin, as well as circular materials from fossil-based waste or residues, the supply chain starts at the point of origin. The chain for renewable feedstocks begins at the renewable electricity unit. For each actor in the supply chain to handle these materials, a valid ISCC certification issued by a CB is required, and verifiable documentation that sustainability criteria are being met at every stage must be available. Evidence of such is passed along using a Sustainability Declaration (SD), often referred to as a Proof of Sustainability (PoS), which is a delivery document containing information about the certified material and must be issued by the supplier for every delivery. Such a system safeguards sustainability claims are transparent, traceable, and verifiable, creating a robust framework for compliance and trust within the certified supply chain. Often, in aviation and maritime transport, alternative drop-in fuels are stored and distributed via a shared infrastructure, making

it impossible to segregate certified fuels from conventional fossil fuels physically. Therefore, SAF and AMF supply chains regularly utilise mass balance – a chain of custody option that accurately captures sustainability characteristics while allowing logistical flexibility. This approach tracks the quantity and sustainability characteristics of bio-based, circular, or renewable energy-derived materials in the value chain and attributes them based on verifiable bookkeeping. Importance of certification for market integrity and credibility Certification plays a critical role in ensuring market integrity and credibility in the aviation and shipping industries, which are under increasing pressure to decarbonise and comply with stringent environmental regulations. As governments and investors increasingly prioritise net-zero commitments, certified SAF and AMF will be essential to future-proof organisations in the industry. With the transition to lower carbon fuels and sustainable operations well underway, certification provides a verifiable and transparent framework that reassures airlines, shipping companies, regulators, and consumers that sustainability claims are credible and measurable. Such frameworks not only support airlines and shipping companies in their compliance with regulatory requirements but also assist access to financial incentives, as certification encourages innovation by stimulating investment in advanced fuel production technologies, sustainable supply

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chains, and carbon reduction strategies. This gives certified companies a competitive advantage in a rapidly evolving industry. Concurrently, certification promotes systematic change through the resulting ripple effect to not only foster, but strengthen a global culture of sustainability in the industry. ISCC credit transfer system for SAF certification verifies SAF’s environmental credentials along the supply chain, but it typically concludes at airport delivery or earlier, Traditionally, sustainability

Scope 1 Voluntary climate disclosure

Scope 3 Voluntary climate disclosure

ISCC Registry

Scope 1 claim

Aircraft operator account

End customer account

SAF Supplier account

Scope 3 claim

Sustainability Declaration (SD) for SAF submitted to ISCC Registry

ISCC Mass balance certication (e.g. ISCC CORSIA, ISCC EU, ISCC PLUS)

ISCC

Control point (airport jet fueling system )

Feedstock producer

SAF Producer/ blend point

SAF supplier

Figure 5 Sample transaction flow within the ISCC Credit Transfer System, complementing traditional supply chain certification

and Scope 3 credits – between SAF suppliers, airlines, logistics providers, and end users. This system ensures that credits are generated, transferred, and retired transparently, preventing double counting and reducing the risk of misleading sustainability claims. Through the ISCC CTS, traceability goes beyond supply chain certification as often occurs under mandates, and enables tracking SAF claims after delivery, ensuring that emission reductions are accurately reported. Transparency is achieved through the ISCC Registry, a secure, open-access database where SAF credits are tracked and managed. Furthermore, the ISCC CTS ensures participants adhere to criteria to validate that claims made represent additional emissions reductions that go beyond what may be considered under regulatory mandates. To qualify for registration of SAF volumes within the system, SAF suppliers must hold valid certification under either ISCC PLUS or a recognised certification under ICAO CORSIA or EU RED. Furthermore, suppliers need to undergo the ISCC CTS audit procedures to

leaving limited mechanisms to track SAF claims following uplift. As airlines, logistics providers, and corporate end-customers increasingly seek to report emissions reductions from their SAF purchases credibly, ISCC responded by launching the ISCC CTS in April 2024. SAF credits provide a mechanism to ensure that emission reductions are achieved and correctly accounted for. They serve as evidence of the environmental benefits of SAF and allow organisations to use SAF credits for voluntary emissions reductions for corporate sustainability reporting, increasing the credibility of companies’ decarbonisation efforts. In addition, the credits facilitate the financial transactions needed to incentivise the production and subsequent uptake of sustainable fuels, enabling a market-based approach to emissions reduction. A digital solution for traceable and verifiable SAF claims The ISCC CTS is a digital registry-based system that facilitates the secure transfer of SAF sustainability claims – in the form of Scope 1

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and verifying emissions reductions, the ISCC CTS encourages investment in SAF production, accelerating the aviation sector’s transition to net-zero emissions. Several industry leaders, such as United Airlines, DHL Express, Neste, Cosmo Oil, OMV, and Microsoft, have recognised this and have already adopted the CTS in their sustainability strategies. DHL Express, for example, is integrating ISCC credits into its GoGreen Plus programme, which allows customers to offset air freight emissions. Another case is Neste Impact, a solution that enables companies to reduce the carbon footprint of their air and transport activities by using SAF tracked through the ISCC CTS. Expanding credit transfers: supporting aviation, shipping, and beyond The future of the ISCC CTS is promising, as it has the potential for broader application in a wide array of varying sectors, such as AMF within shipping markets. The system will likely expand further as industries increasingly adopt alternative fuels and set emission reduction targets. As the market evolves, ISCC remains committed to improving the CTS through continued collaboration and engagement with stakeholders to support the industry in scaling such fuels efficiently and transparently to achieve the quantifiable emissions savings required to meet net-zero targets. The introduction of sustainably certified fuels is more than an opportunity – it is a responsibility for stakeholders within the aviation and maritime markets. By leveraging certification and voluntary credit transfers, organisations have the potential to drive the transition to a low-carbon future while ensuring credibility and transparency in their climate commitments. Collaboration, innovation, and accountability will define the next era of sustainable transport – those who lead today will shape the industry for generations to come.

ensure they meet the requirements and manage transactions according to the rules set forth. When complete, certified SAF suppliers register SAF volumes and generate credits for verified SAF batches delivered to an airport in the ISCC Registry. Following verification, each metric ton of neat SAF generates a Scope 1 and Scope 3 credit in the supplier’s account, which can then be transferred to, or managed for, other stakeholders. Leaning on principles defined by the GHG Protocol (GHGP, 2004) and SBTi (SBTi, 2021) , Scope 1 credits are transferred to the aircraft operator that physically uplifts the SAF, which corresponds to a direct emission reduction from SAF combustion, and Scope 3 credits are passed down the supply chain for downstream utilisation. Therefore, Scope 3 credits to offset emissions associated with air transport or business travel may only be transferred downstream in the value chain; for example, from the SAF supplier to the aircraft operator to the end customer or from the SAF supplier directly to the end customer. Upstream transfer (for example, from the end customer back to the aircraft operator) or across value chains (for example, from aircraft operator to aircraft operator) is not possible. Organisations with credits available in their accounts then retire these credits and automatically receive a retirement declaration. This declaration includes information that allows the organisation to claim sustainability characteristics, such as the GHG emissions reductions associated with the retired credits in their voluntary climate disclosures. Driving market confidence and investment in sustainable fuels For alternative fuel suppliers, certification and credits offer a competitive advantage in the market by demonstrating the environmental credentials of their products. For airlines, logistic providers, and corporate end customers, the ability to purchase certified SAF and the associated sustainability benefits via a crediting mechanism provides a clear path to achieve credible emissions reduction targets and the ability to reliably communicate such claims. As a market-orientated mechanism for tracking

VIEW REFERENCES

Laura Günther guenther@iscc-system.org

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Finance, technology, and policy for green investment By harnessing the power of policy, technology, and finance, we can unlock the potential of green investment and quicken the transition to a low-carbon economy

Valentina Dedi KBR

T he global community finds itself at a pivotal moment in the battle against climate change. As the urgency to transition from a fossil fuel-dominated energy system, heavily reliant on oil and gas, to one driven by greener sources intensifies, governments and investors alike are managing the challenges and opportunities presented by this shift. This article explores how the right mix of supportive policies, financial mechanisms, and technological innovation can de-risk investments in carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) and maximise the potential for green investment amid uncertain times while also addressing the role of the oil and gas industry in the transition. Governments around the world have acknowledged the urgency of accelerating the energy transition and have prioritised capital allocation in their national energy policies. The Paris Agreement sets ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions with the goal of limiting global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Meeting these targets requires an unprecedented level of investment in clean energy technologies and infrastructure. S&P Global Platts estimates it will require more than $5 trillion in investment each year from now through to 2050 to meet the targets agreed by the world’s major economies under the Paris Agreement by 2050 ( S&P Global, 2023 ). To put this into perspective, this is equivalent to investing the entire economy of Germany today, every year for the next two and a half decades. This scale of investment is well beyond what government budgets can afford

alone. Large-scale private sector engagement will be critical, too, including from the oil and gas industry. In recent years, significant capital has been directed towards energy transition projects. However, these investments have been largely constrained to commercially viable projects, primarily favouring renewable power generation, such as wind and solar. These technologies have matured and are now market-ready thanks to a continuous decline in technology costs and the advances in efficiency over the past decade. While they are crucial to the energy transition, they alone cannot address

Industry is facing an urgency to accelerate the energy transition

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the full scope of the challenge, especially in decarbonising the hard-to-abate sectors. Decarbonisation potential of CCUS projects CCUS has the scope to play a pivotal role in the latter sectors. It can be readily deployed at fossil fuel power plants and industrial facilities such as cement, iron and steel, and chemicals, where carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) can be captured and stored or used to create products such as fuels and chemicals (carbon capture and utilisation or CCU). CCUS can also provide a low-cost pathway for low-carbon hydrogen production, which can further contribute to the decarbonisation of the industry and transportation sector, or it can enable the removal of CO 2 , which is unavoidable or technically difficult to abate, directly from the atmosphere through direct air capture with storage (DACS) or bioenergy with CCS (BECCS). This technology is particularly relevant for the oil and gas industry, as it can help mitigate emissions from its operations and products. Although the adoption of CCS has lagged behind initial projections, there has been a substantial increase in activity and interest “ CCS is not a new technology, but the challenge lies in its economically large-scale deployment as investors face several uncertainties and risks ” Industrial clusters Industrial clusters or ‘decarbonisation hubs’ are gaining traction as one way of reducing uncertainty and de-risking investments in decarbonisation. The Wor l d Economic Forum reports that, to date, more than 33 industrial clusters across 16 different countries have joined their global Transitioning Industrial Clusters (TIC) initiative ( WEF, 2025 ). Industrial clusters are eminently suitable for energy-intensive industries considering investments in carbon capture, transport, and storage. Government involvement through funding or public-private partnerships is a common feature in such

in recent years. Across the globe, novel technologies are being piloted with the goal of driving down the cost of carbon capture for both the power generation and industrial sectors. In addition to chemical absorption and physical separation, which are currently the two most advanced capture technologies, other separation technologies are in development, including membranes and looping cycles. To meet net-zero targets, CCUS deployment must increase by several orders of magnitude within the next two to three decades. In the case of the US, it would mean a scale-up to as much as 100 times today’s levels, according to the US Department of Energy’s Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED) ( US Dept. of Energy, 2023 ). While an ever-increasing number of projects across the entire value chain are being announced, only a fraction of them can take a final investment decision. CCS is not a new technology, but the challenge lies in its economically large-scale deployment as investors face several uncertainties and risks. These risks can entail technology failures, cost overruns, extended timeframes, and high capital costs, among others. Another significant risk factor is the lack of clarity with respect to the demand outlook, which makes it challenging for investors to understand the scale of opportunity and, thus, for projects to reach a financial investment decision. Scaling up the infrastructure needed to transport and store captured carbon dioxide also requires the development of new clusters. Knowledge sharing is also considered to be a critical success factor. In many of the clusters, the oil and gas industry brings its experience in gas pipelines for the supply of hydrogen as well as expertise in carbon capture, transport, and suitable locations for permanent storage, for example in depleted oil and gas fields. The cooperation between the governments of the UK and Brazil is another good example of knowledge sharing to progress industrial decarbonisation. The aims of this cooperation include knowledge sharing and support in identifying and accessing international climate finance ( UK Gov, 2024 ).

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The oil and gas industry can play a key role in developing business models to scale up infrastructure

business models which secure the required revenue streams, as well as partnerships between emitters, technology providers, and storage operators. The oil and gas industry, with its expertise in managing large-scale infrastructure projects and subsurface storage, can play a key role here. Industrial clusters, in which different energy- intensive industries work collaboratively to invest in the infrastructure for transport and storage of captured carbon dioxide, are proving to be an effective de-risking approach. Such clusters can create the scale needed to justify investment in pipelines for the transport of carbon dioxide to sites for permanent storage. Importance of policy and regulation Realising the full potential of the CCUS technology, especially at these early stages, will require continued policy support and collaboration between governments, industry, and investors. Coming up with the right policy framework and financing and incentive mechanisms will be critical. Governments and policymakers must establish an environment that creates stability and revenue predictability to attract the required investment and support the acceleration of the technology.

Thus, setting clear targets and priorities over the short, medium, and long term, including legally binding policy and regulatory frameworks, will be crucial to minimise policy uncertainty. At the same time, policy efforts should centre around the introduction of de-risking mechanisms and incentives that support green growth and foster green investment. This is especially pertinent for technologies and infrastructure, such as CCUS, which stand at a risky point in their deployment curve. This can be achieved through a wide range of instruments and approaches, including innovation funding, carbon pricing instruments, carbon credits, tax incentives, guarantees, and low-interest loans, among others. Recent policy developments in the US, such as the Inflation Reduction Act and the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, have started driving investment in clean energy technologies. The Inflation Reduction Act, in particular, is expected to be a game-changer for the CCS industry as it provides significant tax incentives for capturing and storing carbon dioxide. At the same time, as the UK envisions becoming a global technology leader for CCUS, the government announced a funding of £20 billion to support the initial deployment of projects, aiming to unlock

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further investment from the private sector as it provides the much-needed certainty to investors. Previously, in the UK, a lack of agreement on government budgeting and capital allocation, in tandem with a lack of understanding of the commercial risks, had led to CCUS project cancellations in 2011 and 2015. Path forwards Mobilising the capital needed to achieve the ambitious targets will require careful design of policies, financing mechanisms and incentives, and innovation funding. These measures must work together to de-risk investments, boost capital availability, and ultimately make clean energy technologies economically sustainable. The oil and gas industry has a critical role to play in this transition by leveraging its expertise, infrastructure, and financial resources to support the deployment of CCUS and other low-carbon technologies. The path to a sustainable energy future is complex and challenging but also filled with opportunity. By harnessing the power of policy, technology, and finance, we can unlock the vast peace and international security. There is ultra- important work to be done in many domains. The role of governments must be to focus on effective and coherent policy development and common infrastructure enablement. The private sector, not governments, has the expertise and resources to excel in technology innovation, project finance, and project development. producers with green hydrogen off-takers through a mass balance. Development of common infrastructure is one of the most important roles that any government can play. The principles applied to build road networks, railway tracks, and electricity grids must be used to build pipelines. Planning CO₂ and hydrogen pipelines together will create synergies. Coordination is the key. What it means to the private and public sectors Pipeline and transmission infrastructure requires cross-border collaboration, rapid development of international pipeline and CO₂ purity standards, and massive investment in common infrastructure. It will also require regional

potential of green investment and accelerate the transition to a low-carbon economy. Governments must continue to lead the way. At the same time, the private sector must step up and embrace its role as a catalyst for change, channelling capital towards innovative “ The private sector must step up and embrace its role as a catalyst for change, channelling capital towards innovative technologies and approaches ” technologies and approaches. Recent policy developments in the US and Europe are a promising sign of the growing momentum behind the energy transition. However, much decarbonisation and CO₂ management would take five years ago. If we had, then policies and incentives would have been written differently. However, there is still some time to act and plenty of good reason to adjust and refocus in the second half of this decade. Policymakers must review this dynamic situation to set a clear direction in line with the latest facts, the best research, and likely technology deployment trajectories. more needs to be done. VIEW REFERENCES Policy must focus on GHG gas emissions reductions as the problem. It must allow the solutions, such as renewable power generation, long-duration energy storage, hydrogen (of any colour), direct air capture, geological CO₂ storage, batteries, electrification of industrial processes, heat pumps, and energy efficiency, to evolve. Regulators must enable these solutions with permitting and must simultaneously remain broadly technology agnostic and avoid incentivising one solution ahead of another. Nobody knew what trajectory hydrogen

Valentina Dedi Stephen B Harrison sbh@sbh4.de

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Can advanced adsorbents make direct air capture scalable? With continued progress in sorbents, energy integration, and policy frameworks, DAC can help transform CO 2 into a manageable resource

Vahide Nuran Mutlu SOCAR Türkiye Research & Development and Innovation

T he concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere has increased by more than 50% since the Industrial Revolution. This invisible gas is the primary driver of global warming, and now, with every breath we take, we inhale 420 ppm of CO₂. But what if we could extract the CO₂ out of the air? Direct air capture (DAC) offers the possibility of actively removing excess carbon from the ambient air (see Figure 1 ) and is emerging as one of the boldest solutions for tackling the climate crisis. This capability is essential for offsetting residual emissions from sectors where decarbonisation is difficult, such as aviation and shipping, while also addressing historical emissions that have led to the increased atmospheric concentration (Lebling, Leslie-Bole, Byrum, Bridgwater, 2022) .

The International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) both consider DAC to be an essential technology. In the IEA’s Net Zero by 2050 Scenario, DAC must scale from today’s 0.01 MtCO₂/year to 85 MtCO₂/year by 2030, building to nearly 1 GtCO₂/year by 2050. Yet DAC faces significant technical and economic barriers related to high energy consumption, material durability, and cost-effectiveness. Current capture costs range from $250 to $600/t CO₂, although advancements in adsorbent materials and process efficiency are expected to reduce these costs to below $100 per tonne by 2030 (IEA, 2021) . Science behind direct air capture The idea of pulling CO₂ directly from the air, grabbing invisible molecules floating around

Use Using captured CO as an input or feedstock to create products or services.

Transport Moving compressed CO by ship or pipeline from the point of capture to the point of use or storage.

Capture Capturing CO from fossil or biomass-fuelled power stations, industrial facilities or directly from the air.

Storage Permanently storing CO in underground geological formations, onshore or oshore.

Figure 1 Carbon capture and storage infographic

Credit: iea.org

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us and storing them sounds almost futuristic. However, DAC is already a proven technology, operating at a small scale. The challenge is to expand the capacity to deliver a meaningful difference. Unlike traditional carbon capture methods that extract CO₂ from concentrated industrial emissions, DAC works with an immense disadvantage: the gas it seeks to capture is incredibly diluted. At just 0.04%, atmospheric CO₂ is far more dilute than that in flue gas streams, where concentrations can reach 10-15%. This makes DAC an uphill battle in terms of efficiency and energy demand, requiring highly selective materials that can take CO₂ out of the air without excessive energy use. Currently, two main approaches are used to achieve this: liquid solvent-based DAC (L-DAC) and solid sorbent-based DAC (S-DAC), each with distinct mechanisms, energy requirements, and scalability potential. “ Despite the high energy demand, L-DAC systems can operate at scale, with some commercial plants capturing 1 MtCO₂ per year ” L-DAC relies on two closed chemical loops to extract CO₂ from the atmosphere. In the first loop, air is brought into contact with an aqueous basic solution (such as potassium hydroxide), where CO₂ reacts to form a stable carbonate. In the second loop, the captured CO₂ is released through high-temperature processing in a series of units operating between 300°C and 900°C, which makes this approach highly energy- intensive. Traditionally, this heat is sourced from natural gas or concentrated solar power, increasing operational costs and, unless they are fully powered by renewables, emissions. Despite the high energy demand, L-DAC systems can operate at scale, with some commercial plants capturing 1 MtCO₂ per year. A downside is the water consumption, as a L-DAC plant may require 4.7 tonnes of water per tonne of captured CO₂, particularly in regions with low humidity and high temperatures. S-DAC uses solid adsorbents, such as amine-functionalised materials, metal-organic

frameworks (MOFs), and mixed metal oxides (MMOs), to selectively bind CO₂ molecules to their surface. These materials operate through an adsorption/desorption cycling process, where CO₂ is first captured at ambient temperature and pressure, then released through a temperature-vacuum swing process at a much lower temperature than for L-DAC, typically 80-120°C. This significantly reduces energy consumption and allows integration with waste heat and renewable electricity ( Jialiang Sun, 2023 ). While S-DAC systems are generally more energy-efficient, they still face challenges related to long-term stability, sensitivity to moisture, and degradation over multiple capture-release cycles. However, they offer a modular design, meaning plants can be scaled by adding more adsorption/desorption units. At present, a single S-DAC module has a capture capacity of up to 50 tCO₂/year and, in some cases, can simultaneously extract water from the air, with early prototypes removing 1 tonne of water per tonne of captured CO₂. The largest currently operating S-DAC plant captures 4,000 tonnes of CO₂ per year, so it is much smaller in scale compared to large L-DAC plants. Further material improvements and cost reductions will be needed for S-DAC to play a critical role in decentralised and renewable- powered DAC applications. Energy dilemma: can DAC be scaled without a carbon footprint? While DAC offers an effective means of removing atmospheric CO₂, its energy demand presents a major challenge: can it be scaled without leaving a carbon footprint? Today’s DAC systems require between 5.5 and 9.5 GJ of energy per ton of CO₂ captured, depending on the technology used. The critical question is where does this energy come from? If DAC plants rely on fossil fuels, they risk undermining their own climate benefit. The ideal scenario is to power them with waste heat, geothermal energy, nuclear, or surplus renewables, but availability and cost remain barriers to large- scale deployment. The energy demand for DAC varies significantly depending on the technology and whether the captured CO₂ is stored or used.

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Liquid-DAC with storage (L-DACS) requires a large amount of high-temperature heat, whereas solid-DAC with storage (S-DACS) primarily relies on low-temperature heat and electricity. Additionally, CO₂ compression energy is only relevant for storage cases, as shown in Figure 2 . Search for the perfect material At the heart of every DAC system lies a specially designed material: the sorbent that captures the CO₂. The ideal material is highly selective for CO₂, capturing as much as possible per cycle and requiring minimal energy for regeneration. It must also be durable, enduring thousands of cycles without degrading, and, perhaps most critically, it needs to be cheap enough for large- scale deployment. Currently, researchers are focusing on some major material classes, each offering its own advantages and trade-offs (see Figure 3 ). Amine-functionalised adsorbents: the current industry standard Currently, amine-functionalised materials such as polyethylenimine (PEI) or tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) are the most widely used DAC systems due to their strong CO₂ binding capabilities. These materials are typically supported on mesoporous silica (SBA- 15), g -Al₂O₃, or other oxide supports, which provide a high surface area for CO₂ adsorption.

L-DACS

S-DACS

L-DAC/use

S-DAC/use

Low-temperature heat Electricity

High-temperature heat Electricity for CO compression only

Amine-based adsorbents dominate the market because they operate at low regeneration temperatures (80-120°C), making them compatible with waste heat. Their strong chemical affinity for CO₂ allows for efficient capture, even at atmospheric concentrations of 400 ppm. Additionally, their widespread study and use make them easier to commercialise. Despite their advantages, amine- degradation over time, reducing their capture efficiency due to prolonged exposure to oxygen. They are also sensitive to moisture; while some amine-based materials benefit from humidity, functionalised adsorbents face several challenges. They are prone to oxidative Figure 2 Energy needs of DACS and DAC with CO 2 use by technology Credit: IEA

Liquid -DAC solvent ( eg. KOH) Solid-DAC sorbent Amine-functionalised silica Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) Polymer-hybrid MOFs Mixed metal oxides (MMOs) MMO-supported amines Zeolites and carbon-based adsorbents

Figure 3 Sorbents for DAC

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