Feed
UOM
Soybean
Rapeseed
Corn oil
Tall oil
Used
Animal fat
(Canola)
fatty acid
cooking oil
Alternate
TOFA
UCO
Tallow
name
API
21.6
22.0
21.3
18.8
31.1 150
32.1
Chloride (est) Moisture (est)
wppm
20
20
20
20
20
wt%
2
2
4
2
2 7 7
2
FFA
v%
0.5
0.5
12
100
15 15
Sulphur (est)
wppm
100
100
100
8
C
wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt% wt%
77.0% 12.1% 10.9% 100%
77.1% 12.1% 10.8% 100%
76.9% 12.2% 10.9% 100%
76.2% 12.5% 11.3% 100%
75.8% 12.7% 11.4% 100%
75.7% 12.6% 11.7% 100%
H O
Total
Glycerides dist
12:00 14:00 16:00 16:01 18:00 18:01 18:02 18:03
0.30 0.81
0.50
3.00
10.00
3.49 0.00 0.85
13.10 0.10 2.30 28.40 53.80
4.00
13.84
27.00
0.61
5.00
4.00
1.98
25.66 53.23
21.00 41.00
23.00 53.00 53.00
64.40 22.30
32.00 50.00 12.00 12.00
4.75 0.10 0.10 0.40 0.30
2.00 1.00
8.96 8.96
1.30 1.30 0.40 0.30
20:00
8.00 0.50 0.50 0.50 100
20:01
22:00
0.02
22:01
Total
100
100
100
100
100
Table 1 Typical renewable feeds: Seed oils and animal fats
become a usable product as a renewable source of carbon. Some wastes, such as POME, are suitable for direct hydroprocessing. However, woody wastes require preprocessing using pyrolysis or HTL before they can be hydrotreated (IEA Bioenergy, 2022). Renewable processes Renewable processes convert raw feeds into usable transportation fuels and chemical feedstocks. Some processes are required for initial upgrading (pretreating and pyrolysis), while others produce the finished product (Basu, 2018): Anaerobic digestion : Anaerobic digestion, as shown in Figure 1 , is a series of biological processes in which micro-organisms break down biodegradable material in the absence
of oxygen. Typical feedstocks include food waste and animal manure. The main product is biogas, which is then dried and compressed for downstream use. Biogas typically consists of 45-85% methane (CH4) and 25-50% carbon dioxide (CO2). The biogas can be upgraded to biomethane or renewable natural gas (RNG) by removing the CO2 along with water vapour and other trace contaminants. The process also produces digestate, a valuable organic fertiliser. Gasification : Biomass can be fed into a gasifier, as shown in Figure 2 , producing syngas for downstream conversion to fuels or chemicals.
Pyrolysis : Thermal processing upgrades biomass to a product suitable for direct
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