microstructural order, high real density, low CTE, and com- parable purity. A photomicrograph of the highly anisotropic microstruc- ture of waxy oil needle coke is shown in Figure 6 . Conclusion The use of both coal and petroleum derivatives in the energy sector will slowly be replaced by cleaner or renewable energy over the medium to long term. The science of the needle coke value chain is well understood, and the demand for needle coke is expected to experience sustained growth based on increased demand from both the graphite elec- trode and EV (lithium ion batteries) sectors. However, coal tar residuals are known to produce incon- sistent needle coke qualities. The future viability of this precursor (specifically for the ultra-premium needle coke market) is limited by contaminants (metals, semi-carbona- ceous MIQ, and nitrogen) as well as environmental concerns (in terms of carcinogens). Petroleum-based needle cokes enjoy market dominance, but their future viability may largely be dependent on com- petition (especially from bunker fuels) for the downstream derivatives of sweeter crude oil slates. The practice of pro- cessing heavier, higher sulphur crude oils further serves to deteriorate the outlook. The ability to produce higher purity needle cokes whose characteristics (nitrogen or sulphur) are not limited by their source would drive quality initiatives. The use of cleaner fuels (such as natural gas) is virtually guaranteed during this transitional period. The use of GTL (based on natural gas conversion) to produce liquid hydro- carbon fuels also produces a heavy residual waxy oil frac- tion devoid of either nitrogen or sulphur but lacks inherent aromaticity. The ability to self-assemble (in-situ) desirable aromatic precursors at the onset of carbonisation leads to the devel- opment of a stable mesophase and long-range micro- structural order. The lack of stable nitrogen and sulphur heterocycles further removes a realistic quality impediment. While waxy oil may not be the only novel needle coke pre- cursor, it does demonstrate the value of examining unlikely feeds to meet the future market demand for needle coke, which is so dependent on quality. References 1 Clark J, 2011, PhD Thesis: The production of highly anisotropic needle-like coke from aliphatic waxy oil, University of Pretoria Press, Pretoria. 2 Eser S, Jenkins R, 1989, Carbonization of petroleum feedstocks I: Relationships between chemical constitution of the feedstocks and mesophase development, Carbon , Vol. 27, no. 6, 877-882. 3 Eser S, Derbyshire F, Karsner G, 1984, Development of coke texture by thermal pretreatment of petroleum residua, Fuel , Vol. 68, 146-1151. 4 Fitzgibbon T, Martin A, Kloskowska A, Marpol implications on refin - ing and shipping market, 2017. 5 Gary J H, Handwerk G E, Petroleum Refining – Technology and Eco - nomics , 4th ed. Marcel Dekker, 2001. 6 Halim H P, Im J S, Lee C W, 2013, Preparation of needle coke from petroleum by-products, Carbon Letters, Vol. 14, No. 3, 152-161. 7 Hawley G C, 2012, Natural Graphite versus Synthetic, Silicon and Others in Lithium Ion Battery Anodes, George C Hawley & Associates,
Conference Proceedings, 2nd Graphite Conference, 5-6 Dec 2012, London. 8 Jiao S, Guo A, Wang F, Chen K, Liu H, Ibrahim U, Wang Z, Sun L, 2020, Effects of olefins on mesophase pitch prepared from fluidized catalytic cracking decant oil, Fuel , Vol. 262, Article no. 116671. 9 Kawachi H, Oyama T, 2014, Development of super premium needle coke from petroleum heavy residue, Journal of the Society of Powder Technology , Vol. 51, No. 10, 694-698. 10 Korai Y, Mochida I, 1992, Molecular assembly of mesophase and iso- tropic pitches and their fused states, Carbon , Vol. 30, No. 7, 1019-1024. 11 Mackenzie W, 2019, IMO 2020, EVs, and steel – a perfect storm in the needle coke sector?, Mining.com, www.mining.com/web/imo- 2020-evs-steel-perfect-storm-needle-coke-sector 12 Marsh H, Foster J, Hermon G, Iley M, Melvin J, 1973, Carbonization and liquid-crystal (mesophase) development. Part 3. Co-carbonisation of aromatic and heterocyclic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, Fuel , Vol. 52, 243-252. 13 Mochida I, Fujimoto, Oyama T, 1994, Chemistry in the production of and utilization of needle coke, in PA Thrower (ed.), Chemistry and Physics of Carbon , Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 14 Obara T, Yokono T, Sanada Y, Marsh H, 1985, Carbonization be- havior of pitch in the presence of inert material, Fuel , Vol. 64, No. 7, 995-998. 15 Reach 2008, Coal-tar pitch, high temperature, cas No: 65996-93- 2, The Netherlands, www.echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13630/ trd_rar_env_netherlands_pitch_en.pdf/11272c05-e42e-4041-b6cf- 24a06dbbd695 16 Ren W, Zhang Z, Wang Y, Kan G, Tan Q, Zhongc Z, Su, F 2015, Preparation of porous carbon microspheres anode materials from fine needle coke powders for lithium-ion batteries, RSC Adv., Vol. 5, 11115-11123. 17 Robinson P R, Hsu C S, Handbook of Petroleum Technology .1st ed. Springer, 2017. 18 SourceWatch, 2020, Gas to liquids, Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Gas_to_liquids 19 Televisory Blog 2018, Can lithium-ion anode demand for needle coke reduce availability for electrode players?, Televisory, www.tele- visory.com/blogs/-/blogs/can-lithium-ion-anode-demand-for-needle- coke-reduce-availability-for-electrode-players 20 Thomson W, 2018, GrafTech, Conference Proceedings, Wide-Moat Investing Summit 2018, Massif Capital LLC, 1-20. 21 Zhu Y, Liu H, Xu Y, Hu C, Zhao C, Cheng J, Chen X, Zhao X, 2020, Preparation and characterization of coal-pitch-based needle coke (Part III): The effects of quinoline insoluble in coal tar pitch, Energy Fuels , Vol. 34, No. 7, 8676–8684. Marcio Wagner da Silva is Process Engineer and Stockpiling Manager at crude oil refinery based in São José dos Campos, Brazil. Has exten - sive experience in research, design and construction to the oil and gas industry including developing and coordinating projects to operational improvements and debottlenecking to bottom barrel units. He holds a Bachelor’s in chemical engineering from University of Maringa, Brazil and a PhD in chemical engineering from University of Campinas, Brazil. He also holds an MBA in project management from Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, in digital transformation at PUC/RS, and is certified in Business from Getulio Vargas Foundation. John Clark is a fossil fuel scientist and industrial development specialist with substantial experience in fossil fuels research, sustainable prod- uct, and business development. While he specialises in delayed coking chemistry and coke markets, he has made considerable contributions in aluminium, steel, bunker fuel, heavy petroleum residues, coal to oil, bitumen, and energy value chains. He holds a BSc (chemistry), MSc (eng.) in heavy petroleum shipping fuels and a PhD (applied materials engineering) in sustainable needle coke. He has lectured as an honor- ary professor at the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa and held a seat on the executive council of an international coal industry consortium, USA.
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