September 2025 REFINING INDIA Technologies driving a sustainable future
SULPHUR MANAGEMENT ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
RENEWABLE SYNFUELS
FIRED HEATER EFFICIENCY
1
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Contents
September 2025
2 The paradox of plenty: India’s refining ambition and the net-zero tightrope Manoj Sharma 5 Renewable synfuels via Power and Biogas-to-Liquid pathway Ajay Misra and Pankaj Gupta JNK India Ltd 11 Sulphur management and emissions reduction technology Igor Kostromin and Raju Chopra Topsoe 17 Integration of refining with petrochemicals Raj Kumar Das, Chanchal Samanta, Bharat L Newalkar, and Chandrasekhar Narayanamurthy Corporate R&D Centre, Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited 23 Reducing catalyst changeout costs for steam reforming Jumal Shah Johnson Matthey 29 Single-step conversion of crude to olefins and aromatics Somanath Kukade, Arun P Asokan, Pramod Kumar, and S Sriram HP Green R&D Centre, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited 35 Enhancing fired heater efficiency, reliability, and longevity Integrated Global Services 41 Enhancing refinery profitability through reduction of coke make Satyen Kumar Das, Pradeep PR, RK Kaushik Singha, and Alok Sharma Indian Oil Corporation Ltd, R&D Centre 47 Troubleshooting frequent issues faced in fired heater operation Shilpa Singh and Rupam Mukherjee Engineers India Limited 53 Holistic approach to enterprise artificial intelligence adoption Aridaman Singh Ahir, Rohit Dombi, and Harirajan Padmanabhan hpad, Inc. 59 Fluid quality management in amine systems Matt Thundyil, David Seeger, Arvind Chaturvedi, Erin McIntosh, and Roy McDoniel Transcend Solutions 66 Artificial intelligence for refinery flow transmitters NC Chakrabarti, Priyang Shukla, and Jesse Mallhi Reliance Industries Ltd 73 Indian petroleum refiners can reduce costs and improve production by migrating from outdated data analytics tools Kevin Jones dataPARC
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The paradox of plenty: India’s refining ambition and the net-zero tightrope
Editor Manoj Sharma editor@refiningindia.com +91 989 9077 595 Managing Editor Rachel Storry
rachel.storry@emap.com tel +44 (0)7786 136440 Editorial Assistant Lisa Harrison lisa.harrison@emap.com Graphics Peter Harper Business Development Director Paul Mason info@decarbonisationtechnology.com
India, a rapidly developing economy with an insatiable appetite for energy, finds itself on a fascinating and challenging tightrope walk. On one side, the nation is aggressively pursuing a net-zero emissions target by 2070, a critical commitment in the global fight against climate change.
On the other, it continues to eye significant expansions in its oil refining capacity, seemingly locking in a fossil fuel-dependent future. This apparent paradox, however, is a nuanced reflection of India’s unique developmental trajectory and its pragmatic approach to energy security and economic growth. The primary economic driver for expanding refining capacity is to meet India’s burgeoning domestic fuel demand. Domestic consumption of petroleum products has grown at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4% over the last decade. India’s existing refining capacity is currently operating at optimal levels, with utilisation rates of 100-103%. The government maintains that refining capacity must keep pace with this escalating demand to prevent an excessive reliance on fuel imports, which could expose the nation to global price shocks and supply vulnerabilities. However, the current data show a refining capacity of only 258 MMTPA. This situation reveals the core of the paradox: India’s energy demand is projected to grow more than that of any other country in the coming decades. With a large population still experiencing energy poverty and a rapidly expanding industrial and transportation sector, the immediate need for conventional fuels remains undeniable. To simply halt or significantly curb refining expansion would be to compromise energy security, invite import dependence, and potentially stifle economic growth – a gamble no developing nation can afford. The Indian government has set targets for refining capacity, aiming to reach 310 MMTPA by fiscal year 2030. Long-term forecasts from organisations like OPEC project India’s oil demand to more than double from 2024 levels, reaching 13.7 million barrels per day (mn b/d) by 2050, making it the single largest contributor to global oil demand growth. This necessitates significant, sustained investment in refining infrastructure.
tel +44 844 5888 771 Business Development Luke Massingham Luke.Massingham@ petroleumtechnology.com Managing Director Richard Watts richard.watts@emap.com
EMAP, 10th Floor Southern House Wellesley Grove, Croydon CR0 1XG
Cover Story India harbours ambitions of becoming a major refining hub in Asia.
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Beyond domestic consumption, India harbours ambitions of becoming a major refining hub in Asia. The Petroleum Ministry has articulated a vision where existing Indian refineries evolve into regional hubs, supplying petroleum products to other countries. This aspiration is supported by observations from industry experts, who note that refining expansions are largely absent in Western economies but are continuing robustly in regions where demand is growing, with India leading this trend. This drive to become a refining hub, coupled with efforts to reduce import dependence, reflects a broader push for greater strategic autonomy in energy. However, a closer look reveals that India’s refining strategy is not entirely divorced from its climate ambitions. Indian refiners are increasingly incorporating cleaner technologies and exploring diversification. This includes readiness for carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS), green hydrogen blending, energy-efficient process units, and digital optimisation tools. Initiatives like co-processing of bio-feedstocks and integrating renewable electricity into refining operations are also gaining traction. For instance, one of India’s major refiners has recently announced the piloting of India’s largest green hydrogen plant at its refinery in North India. The shift towards petrochemicals is another key facet. As global demand for traditional transportation fuels is expected to peak, refineries are being designed with enhanced petrochemical capabilities. This foresight ensures future demand for their products even as the energy landscape evolves. This strategic pivot offers a crucial pathway for refineries to remain economically viable in a lower-carbon future. The challenges are considerable. Securing capital for hydrocarbon projects is becoming more difficult due to global net-zero concerns, and land acquisition remains a significant hurdle for greenfield projects. Moreover, while operational emissions (Scope 1 and 2) are being addressed, the larger challenge lies in Scope 3 emissions – those generated from the use of refined products by consumers. Success hinges on a multi-pronged strategy, accelerating renewable energy deployment, investing in emerging technologies such as green hydrogen
and advanced battery storage, improving energy efficiency across all sectors, and fostering robust policy frameworks that incentivise sustainable practices and attract green finance. The paradox of refining capacity additions alongside net-zero targets is not a contradiction but a complex reality for a nation balancing rapid growth with climate responsibility. India’s journey will serve as a test case for how emerging economies can navigate this tightrope, demonstrating that energy security and climate action can, and indeed must, co-exist on the path to a sustainable future. The world will be watching to see if India can truly refine its energy future, achieving both prosperity and a greener tomorrow. For the Indian petroleum refining sector, a critical decision looms for companies aiming to boost capacity and meet future energy needs: whether to embark on a brownfield expansion or pursue a greenfield project. The editorial of the next issue of the magazine will aptly delve into the complexities of both approaches, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, as well as the strategic considerations shaping the industry’s path forward. and meet future energy needs: whether to embark on a brownfield expansion or pursue a greenfield project ” “ For the Indian petroleum refining sector, a critical decision looms for companies aiming to boost capacity
Manoj Sharma
Manoj Sharma is an executive leader with more than 35 years of experience in petroleum refining, petrochemical operations, and strategic management. He has proven expertise in refinery optimisation, green initiatives (CCUS, green H₂, biofuels), crude oil trading, risk management, and digital transformation. He has a strong background in international business, process engineering, and corporate governance as a board director. He holds an International MBA from the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and a BE in chemical engineering from Punjab University, Chandigarh.
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Renewable synfuels via Power and Biogas-to-Liquid pathway An innovative PBtL technology, which produces syngas for the production of sustainable aviation fuel via FT synthesis, has been developed and assessed
Ajay Misra and Pankaj Gupta JNK India Ltd
T he hard-to-abate aviation sector – one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gases – urgently needs innovation in the technology pathways currently used for production of sustainable aviation fuels (SAF). SAF is a critical lever for decarbonising the aviation sector; however, it is not a one-size- fits-all solution. It encompasses a variety of production methods and feedstocks, each with its unique benefits and challenges. Three pathways currently in use at scale are: Hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA) ASTM D7566 Annex A2: technology fully mature. v Alcohol-to-Jet (AtJ) ASTM D7566 Annex A5: technology evolving, not fully mature. w Fischer-Tropsch (FT) ASTM D7566 Annex A1: technology fully mature. In this article, we focus on an alternative solution from JNK India Ltd. (JNKI), based on a patented non-catalytic Power and Biogas-to- Liquid (PBtL) technology that produces syngas in a single, three-in-one Plasma-Boudouard Reactor using biogas, CO₂, water and renewable power, without any green hydrogen (H₂). The syngas can be used for the production of SAF via FT synthesis followed by product upgrading. This PBtL pathway, based
electrolysis and reverse water gas shift (rWGS) followed by FT synthesis. At the same time, it is easily scalable through a mere pressure increase; no catalyst or green H₂ is required, and no byproducts are produced. Feedstock challenges, cost drivers, and cost reduction constraints The small quantity of SAF produced in India today is based on the HEFA pathway due to the maturity of its technology and lower costs, followed by a few recently initiated SAF projects based on the AtJ pathway. Supplies of primary feedstock for the HEFA pathway, namely waste animal fats/tallow, oils, and greases, are relatively limited, posing a serious challenge going forward. The current 2024-25 technology-wise breakdown of global SAF production (in operation and under construction) shows 85% capacity based on HEFA pathway, 13% capacity based on AtJ and FT (advanced biofuels) pathway, and 2% capacity based on PtL (e-SAF) pathway. We expect to see more SAF produced globally from AtJ and FT (advanced biofuels) pathways, as well
Advanced biofuels: 30% Long term: 2040-2050
HEFA: 30%
e-S AF : 40%
on plasma pyrolysis of biogas developed by an international company, consumes six times less electricity and requires much lower Capex vis-à-vis the conventional Power- to-Liquids (PtL) pathway, which is based on water
Advanced biofuels: 25% Medium term: 2030-2035
HEFA: 65%
e-S AF : 10%
Advanced biofuels: 13% Current: 2024-2025
HEFA: 85%
e-S AF : 2%
Figure 1 Current, medium-, and long-term outlook of SAF production pathways 1
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Gasi cation/ Fischer- Tropsch
Cost drivers Pathway
HEFA
Alcohol-to- J et
Power - to -L iquid
Costs for both RWGS and SOEC routes are highly driven by cost of electricity either for hydrogen production or co-electrolysis Both PtL routes are also Ca pex intensive and dependent on price of sustainable CO Despite steep decline, cost of green electricity remains substantial Capex for FT+RWGS and FT+SOEC have only limited reduction potential
Gasi cation-FT production cost is largely driven by capital cost
Re ning ethanol into jet fuel presents biggest cost bucket Both steps (ethanol production and jet production) are C apex intensive with decline potential in re ning due to learning e ects Opex of re ning step likely remains relatively high Ethanol production C apex already realised learning rate e ects, resulting in relatively little additional potential
Price of feedstock accounts for majority of production cost and is market-driven based on scarceness of feedstock Cost of (green) H presents the biggest opportunity for HEFA production cost improvement Limited supply of feedstock and high hurdles for expanding feedstock base to purposely grown oil energy plants constrains feedstock cost reduction
Cost reduction constraints
Capex to build gasi er remains high even after an expected strong decline between 2025 and 2030
Figure 2 Cost drivers and reduction constraints of SAF pathways2
itself to seamless co-processing of syncrude from renewable and fossil feedstock in an existing refinery, which can kickstart SAF production quickly with lower investments. Clearly, for future-proofing decarbonisation solutions, there is potential for adopting biofuel strategies for an innovative technology pathway that is sustainable, affordable, and scalable. Accordingly, JNKI is focusing on the production of SAF utilising gaseous feedstock like compressed biogas (CBG), produced in standalone upstream units, which is much easier to transport and handle compared to solid feedstock in a gasifier. CBG is produced offsite by the process of anaerobic decomposition of wastes and biomass sources, such as agricultural residue, cattle dung, sugarcane press mud, municipal solid waste, and sewage treatment plant waste, among others, which are available in abundance. The estimated CBG potential from various sources in India is estimated to be ~40-60 MMTPA, 4 and a very robust, country- wide CBG supply chain network is already in place, which makes this an attractive proposition. JNKI endeavours to bring this PBtL technology to India by proactively engaging with the licensor. The licensor – a pioneer in the development of sustainable synthesis gas technologies – and a global leader in FT synthesis, has signed an MoU to integrate and leverage each other’s innovative technology platforms to produce SAF and renewable diesel (RD) more cost-effectively. Process scheme The PBtL technology uses biogas (50-95% CH₄), waste CO₂, water and renewable power
as e-SAF pathways in the medium- to long-term perspective, as highlighted in Figure 1 . While the AtJ pathway involves the processing of alcohols like ethanol/isobutanol (methanol-to- jet is not yet an approved pathway), the FT and PtL (e-SAF) pathways involve the processing of syngas (H₂ + CO) produced from non-fossil fuels. Feedstock challenges, cost drivers, and cost reduction constraints of various production pathways are elaborated in Figure 2 . Dry CO₂ reforming and plasma pyrolysis of biomethane are two emerging Biogas-to-Liquid FT technologies that will assume importance in the medium- to long-term perspective, as feedstock and Opex-related challenges are foreseen for the AtJ pathway, especially due to the requirement of large tracts of land that compete with food production, biodiversity conservation, and other land uses. Shrinking arable land per capita for a populous country like India poses a significant challenge for the AtJ pathway, which uses bioethanol as feedstock. Therefore, in the future we expect to see more SAF (and e-SAF) produced globally from the FT pathway, which involves the processing of syngas (H₂ + CO) produced through different routes that include biogas reforming or pyrolysis, biomass- to-liquid (gasification), high-temperature (HT) co-electrolysis of CO₂ + water, and PtL via rWGS routes, as highlighted in Figure 3 . Potential for innovative technology pathway SAF pathways come with challenges and trade-offs among feedstock prices, operational complexity, and costs. The FT pathway lends
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Biogas/ land ll gas
Reforming or pyrolysis
Syncrude
Municipal solid waste/ biomass
Sustainable a viation f uel
Syngas
Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis
Re ning/product upgrading*
Gasi cation
CO / H
PtL via reverse w ater g as s hift
e-SAF p athways
If existing infrastructure in re nery is designed to process and upgrade crude oil products, it can be utilised to refine s yncrude to produce SAF and renewable diesel. *
CO / H O
HT Co-electrolysis
Figure 3 Various SAF and e-SAF pathways via FT synthesis
to produce syngas (H₂ + CO) via non-catalytic plasma pyrolysis of CH₄ in a three-in-one Plasma-Boudouard Reactor. The process scheme integrates three well-known chemical reactions in a single reactor to produce syngas – something that has not been conceptualised before: Methane pyrolysis : Splitting CH₄ into carbon and H₂ using plasma arc – a process that has already been successfully employed in several commercial-scale units worldwide. CH₄ → C + 2H₂ temperature-dependent reaction wherein the thermodynamically favoured product is CO at temperature >900°C; this is a fully understood phenomena that has been successfully employed in the fertiliser, refining, and petrochemical industry for more than 100 years. C + CO₂ → 2CO w Heterogenous water gas reaction : Produces syngas (H₂+CO) by passing water vapour through red-hot coke, which helps regulate the desired H₂:CO ratio. The process has been aroun for centuries, and its kinetics are well understood. C + H₂O → CO + H₂ Net reaction: 3CH₄ + CO₂ + 2H₂O → 4CO + 8H₂ (syngas H₂/CO ratio 2:1) v Boudouard reaction : Carbon reacts with CO₂ to produce CO – a reversible,
The unique plasma process, the Intellectual Property Rights of which are protected in all relevant global markets, breaks down biogas into its components carbon and H₂ in the presence of CO₂ and water to produce synthesis gas using renewable power. As both CH₄ and CO₂ are processed simultaneously, the removal of CO₂ from biogas is not essential. Raw biogas, typically containing 50-70%v CH₄, 25-45%v CO₂, and 5%v N₂+O₂+H₂O can be used directly with little or no additional requirement of captured CO₂. No green H₂ is required, and no byproducts are produced. The desired H₂/CO ratio in syngas can be controlled by adjusting reactant flows, making the technology suitable for production of a wide range of fuels and chemicals. The unique selling proposition lies in the proprietary three-in-one reactor, based on the novel combination of three well-known sub-processes. This allows chemical reactions to be controlled in a targeted manner to produce syngas, as opposed to conventional processes that require many reactors and units. Syngas is an intermediate product, which is then used to produce synthetic fuels or other chemical products via FT synthesis in a downstream add-on unit to polymerise the carbon and H₂ components in syngas into long-chain molecules, including SAF. FT synthesis runs at relatively low temperatures (220-350°C) and pressures (2-3 MPa). A typical conversion of about 60% is witnessed in the FT process. Catalysts used are typically cobalt and iron, which are relatively inexpensive.
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Consumption of raw materials
Specific consumption (per MT of fuel) PtL pathway
PBtL pathway
Biomethane/CBG (CH 4 )
Not applicable
0.86 MT
}
}
Renewable power (electrolysis) Water (H 2 O) (electrolysis) Renewable power (process)
26 MWh
Not applicable Not applicable
Green hydrogen (H 2 )
0.45MT (H 2 )
5.0 MT
4.2 MWh (rWGS + FT)
5.5 MWh (3.9 PBR + 1.6 FT)
Water (H 2 O) (process) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 )
Not applicable
0.64 MT 0.78 MT
3.17 MT
Table 1
USPs and Opex/Capex benefits of PBtL The integrated technology platform, consisting of the three-in-one reactor and FT synthesis- cum-refining/product upgrading unit, is capable of producing sustainable fuels on a large scale. The PBtL plant produces drop-in-compatible transportation fuels, such as kerosene, diesel, and naphtha, through a process made possible in a compact, modular plant. Up to a 92% reduction in CO₂ emissions (gCO₂eq/MJ of energy) from an established baseline has been reported in the life cycle analysis (LCA) carried out by the Technical University of Hamburg, Germany,8 which is superior to any other SAF pathway. Biogas feedstock is easier to convert into renewable fuels using the integrated technology platform, requiring very little front-end equipment as compared to other pathways. Moreover, it does not require costly green H2 in any of the process steps, unlike HEFA, AtJ, or PtL pathways, which require H2 for completion of the hydroprocessing or hydrogenation steps for the former two pathways, and the rWGS step for the latter. A PBtL plant has a significantly lower demand for renewable power for the production of SAF by a factor of approximately six times compared to a conventional PtL plant via the rWGS route. A typical breakdown of the production cost of e-SAF based on the PtL pathway is depicted in Figure 4 . It is imperative that the production cost of SAF via the PBtL pathway is clearly lower than the production cost of e-SAF via the PtL pathway. It is a bit premature to accurately estimate Opex due to wide variations in site-specific costs of raw materials, utilities, manpower, capital, factory overheads, as well as fixed and indirect costs. Preferring to err on the conservative side, the
This is followed by a final step of refining/ product upgrading to produce SAF and RD – typically, in a ratio of 80%w: 20%w – with flexibility to produce up to 100% SAF. The product distribution can be adjusted freely within this range, allowing the process to respond dynamically to shifts in demand for either fuel. Importantly, the total hydrocarbon yield remains unchanged regardless of the SAF-RD ratio, and these adjustments can be made with only modest changes to operating conditions without any unit shutdowns. This flexibility allows the PBtL technology to efficiently adapt to market pricing and demand while maintaining high efficiency. The process produces high-quality synthetic hydrocarbons in the range of SAF (C₈ to C1₆ – ideal carbon chain) that are virtually free of sulphur. The process has an extremely low energy requirement, a low carbon footprint with no byproducts, and the final SAF product complies with regulatory ASTM D7566 Annex A1 blend-in standards for jet fuel. A comparative tabulation of the expected specific consumption of main raw materials (ideal case) for SAF plants based on PtL and PBtL pathways, respectively, is presented in Table 1 . The current procurement price of CBG in India is ₹77.4/kg (excluding Goods and Services Tax [GST])5,compared to the prevailing levelised cost of green H₂, which is ~₹350-400/kg⁶ (excluding GST). The round-the-clock renewable energy (RTC-RE) tariff is ₹4-4.5/kWh.⁷ Overall, the economics of both pathways is driven by the price of renewable electricity, green H₂ (or biomethane), and captured CO₂. Prima facie, the above data indicate that the PBtL pathway is a significant improvement on the conventional PtL pathway.
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production cost of SAF via the PBtL pathway is projected to be below $2,000/MT in 2025,³ which is lower than the production cost of SAF via other contemporary technology pathways, except for a lower bound HEFA price. Going forward, Opex is expected to improve significantly due to lower cost of inputs and economies of scale. The design of the PBtL plant is modular and smaller than that of other renewable fuel plants, making it possible to locate compact plug-and- play modules at multiple sites. The typical inside battery limit (ISBL) footprint of a 50 KTPA PBtL plant is expected to be ~50m x 100m, including control room and final/intermediate product storage. The low-cost, modular design PBtL plant delivers the lowest Capex per unit barrels per day (bpd) capacity of any advanced biofuels plant based on any known cellulosic biofuel pathway. For project conceptualisation purposes, the Capex of an installed PBtL plant in India can be assumed to be ~$1 million per MT of daily capacity. Current status The patented plasma process has been validated based on data from a pilot plant. The current Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of the PBtL pathway is 6/7. An integrated industrial-scale SAF plant is currently under construction/ commissioning, which will demonstrate and optimise the production processes. The data generated will act as a model for rapid scale- up to global commercial-scale plants, with technology licensing, large-scale production, and international marketing over the next two to three years. Key takeaways • The future of SAF appears promising, driven by a commitment to meet ambitious decarbonisation targets and continuous innovation for a more sustainable aviation industry. • The application of SAF made from bio- residues and CO₂ can achieve lifecycle emissions reduction of up to 92% compared to conventional fossil-derived aviation fuel. • Biogas and CO₂-based industrial process provides advantages regarding the most efficient use of non-fossil carbon from different sources, with high efficiency and optimised costs. • Co-processing of syncrude from renewable and fossil feedstock in a refinery’s existing
Other O pex 8%
Synthesis & processing 12%
Renewable electricity 40%
CO
CO capture 15%
Electrolyser C apex 25%
Significant cost benefits are perceived for the PBtL p athway , consequent to nil e lectrolyser Capex and much lower renewable power and CO capture costs.
Figure 4 Production cost structure for e-SAF pathways 1 hydrotreating/hydrocracking unit is feasible with minimal modifications. • Little or no technology-related risk is foreseen, as all sub-processes are mature and well-proven. • The PBtL technology embodies a circular economy approach with a paradigm shift towards the utilisation of CO₂ and biogas for the production of SAF. With this closed-loop system, the refining industry can greatly reduce its carbon footprint while enhancing SAF supply chain resilience with feedstock diversity without green H₂. • With the present Government’s goal of ‘Viksit Bharat’ (developed India), the biofuels industry anticipates policy reforms that will facilitate the expansion of new CBG projects nationwide. JNKI’s vision for adopting the innovative PBtL pathway aligns with this goal. • JNKI can integrate the Plasma-Boudouard Reactor and FT units into the full chemical value chain, and drive better Capex and Opex solutions, as well as pivot toward circular SAF production.
VIEW REFERENCES
Ajay Misra ajay.misra@jnkindia.com Pankaj Gupta pankaj.gupta@jnkindia.com
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Sulphur management and emissions reduction technology Introducing a comprehensive, low-risk sulphur management solution with minimal environmental footprint and low life-cycle costs
Igor Kostromin and Raju Chopra Topsoe
I ndia’s refining sector is under growing pressure to balance economic growth with environmental responsibility. Driven by the need to reduce crude imports, ensure reliable and profitable operations and lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, refinery operators must find and then adopt technologies that support these goals. India also currently imports a significant amount of phosphatic fertiliser and aims to become self-reliant by increasing domestic production. One solution that helps meet India’s requirements is Wet gas Sulphuric Acid (WSA) technology. This is a proven process for sulphur dioxide (SO₂) abatement that transforms environmental challenges into commercial opportunities, supporting the country’s refinery, fertiliser, import reduction and pollution mitigation objectives while enhancing the profitability. WSA is part of Topsoe’s broader Clean Air solutions portfolio, aimed at converting sulphurous waste streams into value while minimising operating costs and emissions. It enables refiners to stay compliant, reliable, flexible, reduce risk, and protect profitability through high-efficiency sulphur recovery. So, how can the process support Indian refineries in reducing emissions, generating value from waste gases, and also align with the country’s circular economy and net-zero goals? Understanding the emissions challenge in refining SO₂ emissions are a persistent environmental hazard. To meet fuel quality standards, refineries use hydrotreaters to remove sulphur from oil products. This process generates sulphurous
off-gases, which then go to amine treating units for capture from the gas stream. If not treated properly, these gases (rich in hydrogen sulphide [H₂S]) pose environmental and public health risks and are a major contributor to acid rain and respiratory illnesses. Currently, most refineries rely on the Claus process for sulphur recovery. While effective to a degree, it struggles with energy “ A major challenge in the Claus process is the limitation in processing sour water stripper (SWS) gases, as a high percentage of ammonia there has the potential to form ammonium salts that can cause catalyst poisoning and equipment fouling ” inefficiency, especially when combined with tail gas treatment units and incinerators. These systems often require external fuel combustion, increasing both operational complexity and direct CO₂ emissions. Another major challenge in the Claus process is the limitation in processing sour water stripper (SWS) gases, as a high percentage of ammonia there has the potential to form ammonium salts that can cause catalyst poisoning and equipment fouling. Additionally, Claus plants are not ideally suited for treating lean or variable sulphur streams, leading to inefficiencies in modern, dynamic refinery settings. Introducing WSA WSA is a catalytic process that recovers sulphur from waste gases as commercial-
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gas is recovered and converted into high-pressure, superheated steam. This steam can be integrated into plant operations to offset steam from fossil-fuel- fired boilers, thereby reducing energy costs and GHG emissions. The sulphuric acid produced is a high- purity, commercially valuable product with a broad range
Superheated HP steam
Hot air blower
Stack
Cleaned gas
Combustion air
Steam drum
SO converter
BFW
Cooling air blower
Interbed cooler
H S gas
Air
Waste heat boiler
Combustor
Process gas cooler
WSA condenser
Sulphuric acid
Acid cooler
CW
Figure 1 The WSA process
grade sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄). Unlike traditional methods, it treats wet off-gases directly, eliminating the need for costly and energy- intensive gas drying steps. The process is simple: using air, cooling water and boiler feed water, it achieves effective sulphur removal (WSA technology can be designed to achieve SO2 emissions below 10 ppmv) without any chemical additives or waste streams. The process is composed of three primary stages. First, sulphur in the feed gas is combusted or preheated, depending on its composition, to form SO₂ at the optimal temperature. Second, SO₂ is oxidised to SO₃ in a multi-bed converter using Topsoe’s VK-W series catalyst. Third, the SO₃ gas is hydrated by existing water vapour in the process gas to form sulphuric acid and condensed in the WSA condenser, where heat is also recovered. The final product is commercial-grade acid ready for storage, and the resulting cleaned gas can be released to atmosphere or used further downstream. WSA technology operates efficiently even at SO₂ concentrations as low as 0.1% and can seamlessly handle feed fluctuations without operator intervention. It also efficiently processes lean acid gases containing below 30% vol H₂S, a range where conventional Claus units often face operational challenges. Key advantages for refineries One of the WSA process’s most notable features is its superior energy efficiency. More than 90% of the thermal energy in the feed
of industrial applications – from fertiliser manufacturing and metallurgical leaching to water treatment chemicals. For Indian refiners, this creates a new revenue stream while contributing to national industrial supply chains. Operational reliability is another major advantage. WSA units are compact, modular and designed for high uptime. All process steps occur near atmospheric pressure, which enhances safety and ease of maintenance. In contrast to scrubbers or dry-gas systems, WSA requires no absorbents, activated carbon or heat transfer salts. This makes it inherently simpler to operate and more resilient to variable operating conditions. The process has the inherent capability to process a higher percentage of sour gases without any issue, as it operates in full combustion mode. This means there is no challenge related to ammonia slip from the combustion chamber. There is also no issue related to the choking of catalyst beds due to soot formation, which is quite common in partial combustion mode operation in the Claus process. The process operates at a lower pressure compared to the Claus process, requiring a lower battery limit feed pressure. This enables acid gas from the amine regenerator and sour gas from the sour water stripper to be supplied at reduced pressures, allowing both units to operate more efficiently with lower reboiler duties. The bottom line is that reboiler duty in upstream units is saved, reducing energy consumption.
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Due to its inherent operational features, WSA offers more flexibility in terms of crude types. Added to this, Topsoe’s ClearView digital service platform enhances its performance. It collects real-time process data, runs advanced simulations, and provides actionable recommendations to maintain optimal efficiency and compliance. This ensures that refiners meet daily targets for sulphur removal and steam production with minimal downtime or deviation. The result is a comprehensive, low-risk sulphur management solution with a minimal environmental footprint, low life-cycle costs, and high commercial potential. IndianOil, India’s flagship refining company, recently commissioned a WSA plant at its Haldia refinery. The project treats sulphurous off-gases to produce sulphuric acid, aligning with India’s strategic emphasis on circular economy initiatives. This installation delivered the largest recorded carbon emissions savings across all IndianOil Group projects to date. By converting what would otherwise be waste emissions into a saleable product, the refinery supports domestic industry while minimising its environmental impact. The acid is reintroduced into industrial markets, contributing to fertiliser production, linear alkylbenzene sulphonic acid (LABSA) production, and metal extraction applications. The project not only enhances environmental Refinery case studies IndianOil’s Haldia refinery compliance but also demonstrates WSA’s ability to support national sustainability goals without requiring significant infrastructure modifications. Greenfield oil refinery At a greenfield oil refinery, the WSA process was benchmarked against a modified Claus process with an amine-based tail gas treatment unit (TGTU) configuration. Both systems were designed to achieve 99.9% sulphur recovery, processing 90 mol% H₂S amine acid gas and SWS off-gas. The refinery configuration produced 270 TPD of sulphur and 800 TPD of sulphuric acid. The comparison evaluated direct CO₂
emissions from flue gases and indirect emissions associated with utility consumption. While the WSA process had slightly higher electrical consumption (primarily due to greater gas volumes and the use of an air- cooled acid condenser), it demonstrated clear benefits in other critical areas. The Claus system relied on natural gas combustion in the incinerator to eliminate residual sulphur compounds, leading to elevated CO₂ emissions. WSA, by contrast, achieved complete combustion of sulphur compounds internally and required no external significantly. The Claus process required low- pressure steam input for TGTU regenerators, while the WSA system generated high- pressure, superheated steam that could be used within refinery operations, lowering the reliance on boiler-generated steam. Although WSA’s cooling water demand was higher due to the acid condensation step, it eliminated wastewater discharge and avoided chemical consumption, improving the unit’s environmental profile. These operational benefits translated into greater energy efficiency and lower total GHG emissions. This case study illustrates how WSA can enable greenfield refinery projects to achieve both sulphur compliance and carbon reduction goals from day one, while maximising energy recovery and long-term economic returns. fuel, effectively reducing emissions. Steam management also differed technology was deployed to process waste gases from the refinery’s amine and SWS units. The result is a virtually zero-emissions process that produces a commercial-grade product with high local value. The sulphuric acid is used in Peru’s copper mining sector and fertiliser industry, reducing the country’s dependency on imported chemicals. Additionally, the exothermic reactions within the WSA process produce high-pressure steam, which is now integrated into Talara’s refinery operations. This reduces the need for natural gas combustion, contributing to significant carbon emission reductions. PetroPeru’s Talara refinery At the Talara refinery in Peru, WSA
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Technical and environmental comparison – WSA vs Claus
Feature
Modified Claus process
WSA technology
Sulphur recovery Energy efficiency
99.9+% with tail gas treatment Lower (due to tail gas treatment
Up to 99.99%
High (uses exothermic heat,
units & incinerators) Yes (requires fuel)
generates steam)
Direct CO₂ emissions
None
Capital & operational cost
High for multi-stage setups Tail gas chemicals, NaOH, etc.
Lower due to simpler design
Chemical usage Acid production
None
Elemental sulphur only
Market-grade sulphuric acid
Table 1
Technical and environmental comparison In comparing the WSA process to the traditional Claus method, key differences become immediately apparent (see Table 1 ). While both technologies aim for high sulphur recovery rates, their methods and outcomes diverge significantly. The Claus process, even with three catalytic stages and tail gas treatment, often falls short in energy recovery and environmental performance. It typically requires external fuel combustion, which increases operational complexity and CO₂ emissions. Tail gas treatment units and incinerators add further capital and utility costs. WSA, by contrast, operates without tail gas incineration or chemical consumption. It recovers more thermal energy from the gas- to-acid conversion and produces high-quality steam for direct use in refinery processes. This enables the technology to offset boiler fuel consumption and eliminate associated GHG emissions. While the Claus process yields elemental sulphur, WSA creates a liquid acid product that is easily stored, transported, and monetised in industrial markets. The net environmental impact of the technology is markedly lower, making it a strategic asset in any decarbonisation roadmap. Replacing or revamping older Claus units with WSA technology represents a strategically sound option, particularly compared to constructing entirely new Claus units. A gradual shift from sulphur to sulphuric acid production also enables refineries to gain operational experience in acid handling and develop robust off-take partnerships. Over time, increasing the volume
of acid gas directed toward WSA improves both environmental and economic performance. Role in India’s decarbonisation journey India has committed to reaching net-zero emissions by 2070 and has identified refining as a key sector for transformation. Enhancing energy efficiency, reducing emissions, and embracing circular business models are top priorities. WSA fits directly into this agenda. By removing nearly all sulphur content from off-gases and eliminating direct CO₂ emissions, the process contributes to cleaner air and lower long-term operational costs. Its ability to generate steam also aligns with India’s goal of reducing reliance on fossil fuels for process energy. The process also supports broader industrial resilience by supplying sulphuric acid to downstream sectors, decreasing dependence on imports, and strengthening domestic chemical manufacturing. Its modular design, flexible installation, and low utility demand make it adaptable for a wide range of facilities. For Indian refiners, WSA offers a practical and proven route to meet regulatory standards while improving margins. Its success at IndianOil’s Haldia site provides a strong precedent, backed by a scalable design that can be adapted to a wide range of facilities across the country. Getting started with WSA in India Transitioning to WSA does not require an overnight overhaul of existing sulphur recovery infrastructure. In fact, a phased replacement of ageing Claus units offers an efficient and lower- risk entry point.
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Topsoe provides end-to-end support, from licensing and basic engineering to proprietary catalyst supply, construction oversight, and commissioning. Its engineers work directly with EPC contractors to ensure fast, safe, and cost- effective implementation. Additionally, through the ClearView platform, plant operators gain access to predictive insights, maintenance alerts, and performance optimisation strategies. Topsoe also facilitates market integration through its network of industrial acid traders. Indian refiners can confidently enter the sulphuric acid market with secure off-take agreements that remove uncertainty around product monetisation. By starting with a single WSA plant and expanding based on performance and market demand, refiners can build operational experience and confidence in the technology. The added benefit of steam generation means energy savings begin from day one, providing immediate returns. A timely opportunity for Indian refiners The pressures of environmental compliance,
energy efficiency and market competitiveness are converging rapidly for India’s refining sector. It is time to convert sulphur from a problem into a profit and emissions from a liability into a leadership opportunity. Topsoe’s WSA delivers near-total sulphur removal, produces a profitable product, and offsets carbon emissions – all without the need for fuel or chemicals. Backed by successful deployments in India, Latin America, and globally – with more than 175 units built worldwide – the process has a proven track record of successful implementation in refineries, delivering significant cost savings and emission reductions.
ClearView and Wet gas Sulphuric Acid (WSA) are trademarks of Topsoe.
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Integration of refining with petrochemicals Unique role of the hydroformylation process in modern petrochemical production and emerging trends as refineries adapt to evolving market demands Raj Kumar Das, Chanchal Samanta, Bharat L. Newalkar, and Chandrasekhar Narayanamurthy Corporate R&D Centre, Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited
T he global energy system has entered a period of unprecedented transformation since the Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015. This shift is driven by international climate commitments, growing recognition of the need for sustainable development, and a collective effort to limit global warming to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C, above preindustrial levels. A peak in fossil fuel demand, particularly in the transportation sector, is anticipated, with a gradual decline as low-carbon alternatives gain ground. India’s refining sector1 has seen unprecedented growth over the past three decades, with capacity expanding from 62 MMTPA in 1998 to more than 255 MMTPA, positioning the country as the fourth-largest refining hub globally. Supported by 23 refineries – including 19 public sector undertakings (PSUs), three private refineries, and one joint venture – India has also emerged as the seventh-largest exporter of refined products. Planned expansions aim to reach refining capacity to 300 MMTPA, reinforcing the sector's global significance. India’s refining sector has also contributed significantly 9,000
2022-23 (as per first revised estimates). This has also contributed to an increase in All India GDP from Rs. 99.44 lakh Crore to Rs. 269.49 lakh Crore in the corresponding period, at current prices. Despite this remarkable progress, the refining sector faces emerging challenges due to the accelerating electrification of transport, increased adoption of ethanol-blended fuels, compressed natural gas (CNG), and hybrid vehicles, all aimed at reducing carbon footprints. Gasoline and diesel will face the biggest impact as the transportation sector is shifting toward electric, hybrid, hydrogen, and alternative fuels, coupled with efficiency improvements, changing mobility patterns, and infrastructure developments like freight corridors, metro networks, and railway electrification. As shown in Figure 1 , transportation fuel demand is projected to remain relatively flat, highlighting a structural shift in long-term consumption patterns and signifying the need for the refining sector to evolve beyond traditional models of operation. Integration of refining with
to the country’s economic development. As per the information provided by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, the gross value added (GVA) of the manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products increased from Rs. 1.56 lakh Crore in 2012- 13 to Rs. 2.12 lakh Crore in
7,500
6,000
4,500
3,000
Petrol (TMT) Diesel (TMT)
1,500
0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2,900 3,100 3,400 3,600 3,767
Petrol (TMT) 2,736
3,700 8,500 8,571
Diesel (TMT) 7,834 7,900 8,000 8,200 8,400
Year on year demand until 2025
Figure 1 Demand growth of transportation fuel – diesel and petrol
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Ethylene, propylene, and aromatics will drive future petrochemical growth, fuelled by global wealth and increased demand for consumer goods. India reflects this trend, with significant potential to reduce its 34% polymer import dependency (2016–17, Indian Petrochemical Industry Report) and meet rising domestic demand. India’s per capita plastic consumption has grown from 5.5 kg in 2010 to 15 kg in
R
R
OH
+ H
Isomerisation
Hydrogenation
O
Hydro- formylation
Reductive amination
R
R
R
R
N
+ NHR R + H , – H O
+ CO/H
R
A l dol condensation
– H O
O
R
R
Figure 2 Hydroformylation process plays a unique role in obtaining various types of functionalised products used widely in many industries
petrochemicals production offers a strategic pathway to enhance margins, improve crude flexibility, and align with emerging market requirements and sustainability targets. Among the various processes used in petrochemicals integration with refining, hydroformylation stands out as a unique and versatile technology, enabling the production of value-added oxo-alcohols and chemical intermediates essential for plastics, coatings, and specialty materials. This article discusses the emerging role of hydroformylation and highlights how this process supports the transition toward a future-ready, high-value, low-carbon refining- petrochemical ecosystem. Integration of petrochemicals with refining The simultaneous decline in transportation fuel demand and rising demand for petrochemicals presents a structural challenge for refiners. Reduced fuel demand leads to overcapacity, while remaining assets must be reconfigured to maximise production of jet fuel, light olefins, and other high-value intermediates essential for evolving market needs.
2021, yet remains well below levels of the US (109 kg), EU (65 kg), and China (45 kg), underscoring growth opportunities.2 To capture this demand and support the ‘Make in India’ initiative, Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited (BPCL) has entered the petrochemical sector through its Propylene Derivative Petrochemical Project (PDPP) at Kochi Refinery – the first in India to produce acrylic acid, acrylates, and oxo-alcohols at scale. The PDPP plant features advanced technology, including the world’s largest single-reactor acrylic acid unit (160 KTPA, licensed by Air Liquide Global E & C Solutions, Germany). In this evolving landscape, hydroformylation is a pivotal process, enabling the conversion of olefins, particularly propylene, into oxo-alcohols – key intermediates across industries. As refiners integrate more deeply with petrochemicals, hydroformylation emerges as a vital technology for flexible, high-margin, and future-ready refining operations. Industrial journey of hydroformylation process The hydroformylation reaction, discovered in 1938 by German chemist Dr. Otto Roelen
O
O
Market share of various oxo-derivatives
CO H
+
+
H
H
Esters 2-Ethylhexanol Fatty alcohols Propionic acid Pyridine derivatives n-Butanol Polyvinyl butyral n-Propanol Trimethylolethane Butyric acid
n-Butyraldehyde
Propylene
Iso b utyraldehyde
HO
OH
OH
Neopentyl glycol
n-Butanol
O O
OH
OH
Isobutanol
Ethylhexanol
Polyvinyl butyral
Figure 3 Industrial applications for large-volume chemicals production using hydroformylation
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