Refining India December 2025 Issue

December 2025 REFINING INDIA Technologies driving a sustainable future

21-22

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Contents

December 2025

2 The greenfield vs brownfield conundrum: India’s refining capacity expansion strategy Manoj Sharma 5 India’s future in refining: growth, complexity, and resilience Leonard Chan Ketjen FCC 11 Valorisation of plastic pyrolysis oil via co-processing in FCC units Sanju Kumari, Hemant Mishra, Somanath Kukade, and Pramod Kumar Hindustan Petroleum Green R&D Centre, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited 17 Transforming C4 into high-octane gasoline Prosenjit Maji, Pushkar Varshney, Talari Raju, Satyen Kumar Das, R K Kaushik Singha, and Alok Sharma Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited 23 Co-processing in refineries for fast, scalable SAF production Ignacio Costa and Raju Chopra Topsoe 27 An IIoT predictive maintenance framework for relief valves Sourav Mukherjee Engineers India Limited 33 Adopting a digital transformation framework Edward Ishiyama, Simon Pugh, and James Kennedy Heat Transfer Research, Inc. (HTRI) 38 Distillation column revamp using DWC technology Rajeev Ranjan and Minaz Makania KBR Anish Chakraborty and Naveen V Nair BPCL 42 Increasing the potential of pre-reforming Jumal Shah Johnson Matthey 49 Predicting and preventing absorber fouling Benjamin Spooner and Steven Ayres SGS Amine Experts 55 Smart revamp options for amine regenerators Ayan Dasgupta, Debopam Chaudhuri, and Vaneet Garg Fluor Corp. 60 Value maximisation with process digital twins and data analytics Jesse Mallhi, Paras N Shah, Sathiyanarayanan A, N C Chakrabarti, Narendar Mitta, and Vikas Deshmukh Reliance Industries Limited 65 Unlocking AI potential: role of a modern data ecosystem Scott Kahre dataPARC

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The greenfield vs brownfield conundrum: India’s refining capacity expansion strategy

Editor Manoj Sharma editor@refiningindia.com +91 989 9077 595 Managing Editor Rachel Storry

rachel.storry@emap.com tel +44 (0)7786 136440 Editorial Assistant Lisa Harrison lisa.harrison@emap.com Graphics Peter Harper Business Development Director Paul Mason info@decarbonisationtechnology.com tel +44 844 5888 771 Managing Director Richard Watts richard.watts@emap.com

India, the world’s third-largest oil consumer and a major refining hub, faces burgeoning energy needs owing to rapid industrial development, urbanisation, and increased vehicle ownership. With domestic demand for refined petroleum products growing at an annual rate of 3% to 4%, plans are

under implementation to expand the current national refining capacity of around 257 million tonnes per annum (MTPA) by 20-25% by the year 2030. For the next decade, there are projections to expand this refining capacity to 450 MTPA to make India a major global refining hub. This vision forces the refining industry to evaluate two strategic pathways: the pragmatic, incremental approach of brownfield expansion and the ambitious, transformative path of greenfield development. The choice will affect not only the immediate cost and timeline but also the long-term competitiveness of the sector. Appeal and constraints of brownfield expansion Brownfield expansion, which involves upgrading, debottlenecking, or expanding existing refinery sites, has become the default strategy for most Indian refining companies. Its appeal is rooted in practical economics and logistics. Companies benefit immediately from leveraging established infrastructure, including storage tanks, power utilities, pipelines, and crucial port connectivity. This utilisation of existing assets significantly reduces initial Capex and the time-to-market, offering quicker returns on investment and a lower risk profile for managing capital. Recent industry data suggests that more than 80% of the planned new capacity in the near future is expected to come from such incremental brownfield additions. This is seen as a ‘quick win’ approach, allowing refiners to swiftly capture rising gross refining margins (GRMs) during periods of high demand. However, this approach faces severe technical and operational constraints. Brownfield sites are often space- constrained, limiting the integration of advanced process units and efficient layouts. A few ageing and small-capacity wellhead refineries will have limited capacity for expansion. The main challenge is the execution of construction near live hydrocarbon units, known as simultaneous operations (SIMOPS). This environment mandates strict safety protocols, extensive permitting within the operating facility,

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Cover Story Future-proof strategy for expansion. Courtesy of IOCL.

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Towards a future-proof strategy The decision to pursue a brownfield or greenfield refinery expansion is a complex strategic choice, heavily influenced by a multitude of factors, including financial viability, market timelines, land availability, and technological adaptability. The current trajectory, heavily favouring incremental brownfield growth, is a pragmatic short-term strategy to bridge the immediate demand- supply gap. But for India to solidify its position as a globally competitive major refining hub and meet its long-term climate goals, a shift toward adding smart capacity is crucial. Simply adding barrels is no longer enough; the capacity must be resilient and adaptable. This requires two key sovereign policy interventions to harmonise the two approaches:  De-risking greenfield investment: The government must streamline and expedite land acquisition processes and introduce clearer risk-sharing models for these capital-intensive, long-gestation projects.  Mandating future integration : New capacity, whether brownfield or greenfield, must be designed with the explicit capability for seamless integration with green energy vectors (such as green hydrogen, biofuels, renewables) and provisions for carbon capture and storage (CCS), aligning the industry’s growth with the 2070 net-zero targets. India needs strategic, future-proof capacity that ensures both energy security and global technological leadership, demanding a delicate balance between the logistical efficiency of brownfield expansions and the transformative, technological potential of greenfield complexes. Manoj Sharma Manoj Sharma is an executive leader with more than 35 years of experience in petroleum refining, petrochemical operations, and strategic management. He has proven expertise in refinery optimisation, green initiatives (CCUS, green H₂, biofuels), crude oil trading, risk management, and digital transformation. He has a strong background in international business, process engineering, and corporate governance as a board director. He holds an International MBA from the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and a BE in chemical engineering from Punjab University, Chandigarh.

and severely restricts access for construction vehicles and large equipment. Consequently, brownfield projects frequently experience scope creep, cost overruns, and protracted delays, often stemming from the complex integration (or ‘tie-ins’) of new pipes and control systems into ageing, obsolete infrastructure. Dealing with historical contamination and legacy design inefficiencies further complicates these projects, sometimes negating the initial cost advantage. Strategic value and high risk of greenfield projects Conversely, greenfield projects – building an entirely new refinery complex on undeveloped land – offer unparalleled strategic advantages. By starting from a blank slate, developers can design highly integrated refinery-petrochemical complexes that utilise the latest, most efficient technologies. This technological freedom maximises complexity and conversion capability, enabling the refinery to process cheaper, heavier crudes and produce high-value petrochemical intermediates, thereby ensuring superior long-term GRMs and greater resiliency against market volatility. The scale achievable through greenfield construction, such as the once-proposed 60 MTPA West Coast Refinery, provides world-class economies of scale and operational efficiency, setting up the asset for decades of low-cost operation. The strategic upside, however, is offset by immense execution risk. The primary bottleneck in India is consistently land acquisition. Finding contiguous, suitable land parcels large enough for a multi-billion-dollar complex, often 1,500 to 2,500 acres, has repeatedly stalled major projects. The high upfront Capex and the lengthy gestation period also increase financial risk aversion, especially in the face of accelerating global energy transition policies and India’s own ambitious Net Zero 2070 commitment. The recent decision by a major refiner to proceed with a new greenfield project in Andhra Pradesh on the East Coast of India, while showing confidence in long-term demand, has been framed by industry commentators as potentially ‘India’s latest greenfield refinery project’, underscoring the immense political, regulatory, and financial hurdles inherent in this route.

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India’s future in refining: growth, complexity, and resilience The future relies on petrochemical integration, feedstock flexibility, and effective contaminant management – key factors for competitiveness

Leonard Chan Ketjen FCC

I ndia’s refining sector is entering a transformative era, driven by the country’s dual imperatives: a sustained rise in transportation fuel demand and an even steeper trajectory in petrochemical consumption. As the world’s most populous nation and one of its fastest-growing economies, India is expected to see transportation fuel demand grow between 2% and 4% annually through 2040, while petrochemical demand is projected to outpace GDP growth. This twin challenge – and opportunity – places India’s refiners at the heart of a complex energy transition. Urbanisation, rising incomes, and industrial expansion are fuelling a steady increase in mobility and logistics, underpinning the robust demand for gasoline, diesel, and aviation fuels. Simultaneously, the rise of a consumer- driven economy is catalysing demand for petrochemical derivatives used in packaging, textiles, automotive components, and construction materials. These trends are not transient; they reflect structural shifts that will define India’s energy consumption for decades to come. To meet these demands, the refining industry must expand capacity while evolving into integrated complexes capable of producing both clean fuels and high-value petrochemicals. The government’s vision to increase refining capacity from ~250 MMTPA to more than 300 MMTPA by 2030, as the first step, is an indication of what is needed to satisfy India’s energy and chemical needs in the next few decades. But capacity alone is not enough. The future lies in petrochemical integration, feedstock flexibility, and contaminant management – strategic

levers that will define competitiveness in the years ahead. Shifting refining and petrochemical landscape While India’s refining sector is poised for growth, global market dynamics present a more challenging backdrop. Oversupply in the petrochemical sector, driven by aggressive capacity additions in Asia and the Middle East, has led to low prices, margin compression, and underutilisation. Standalone naphtha crackers, especially those lacking integration or flexibility, are increasingly vulnerable. This underscores the importance of integrated refining-petrochemical complexes that can pivot between fuel and chemical production based on market needs. Simultaneously, underinvestment in conventional crude oil exploration has led to a shift toward unconventional sources and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques. These methods often introduce novel contaminants, particularly iron, into the crude stream. Iron contamination poses serious risks to fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) operations, including catalyst deactivation and fluidisation issues. As refiners process more opportunity crudes to maximise margins, managing these contaminants becomes a critical operational priority. producing both clean fuels and high-value petrochemicals ” “ The refining industry must expand capacity while evolving into integrated complexes capable of

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process heavier, more contaminated feeds under such conditions, while lowering feed cost, demands robust management strategies. Ketjen’s advanced FCC catalyst formulations are designed to maintain activity and selectivity under severe conditions, while its contaminant mitigation technologies help refiners manage metals such as iron, vanadium, nickel, and sodium. These solutions enable refiners to catalyst systems and contaminant

Ethylene (C=)

Propane dehydrogenation (PDH)

Ethane, propane butane, NGLs (C+)

Propylene (C=)

LPG

Steam cracking

Butadiene (C==)

Pygas

Crude oil

Reformate

Catalytic reforming (CR)

Aromatics complex

BTX

C=, C=

Fluidised catalytic cracking (FCC)

Renery operations

Methanol to olens (MTO, MTP)

Gasication & methanol synthesis

Methanol

Coal

SMR & methanol synthesis

Natural gas

Figure 1 Conventional max propylene and high-severity FCC unit for process intensification in an integrated refinery/petrochemical complex

Unlocking petrochemical potential through high-severity cracking To meet the rising demand for petrochemicals, Indian refiners are turning to high-severity FCC technologies such as PMcc (Technip Energies), and Indmax (Lummus). Including HS-FCC (Axens/Technip), these units operate at higher reactor outlet temperatures, shorter contact times, and elevated catalyst-to-oil ratios, enabling significantly higher yields of propylene, butylene, and even ethylene. A critical enabler of these performance gains is the use of highly selective zeolites, such as ZSM- 5. ZSM-5’s unique shape-selective properties promote the cracking of gasoline-range olefins into light olefins, particularly propylene, making it indispensable for pushing the established boundaries of propylene yield in high-severity operations. However, these gains come with challenges. High-severity operation increases dry gas production, requiring tighter integration with downstream gas recovery and olefins separation systems. Moreover, the ability to “ To meet the rising demand for petrochemicals, Indian refiners are turning to high-severity FCC technologies ”

maximise petrochemical yields, maintain unit reliability, and adapt to fluctuating feedstock quality, all while supporting integration with downstream product recovery systems. Catalyst innovation as a bridge between fuels and petrochemicals The convergence of refining and petrochemicals requires a new generation of catalysts that can deliver high light olefin yields while managing complex feeds. Ketjen’s innovations in low hydrogen transfer zeolites, high matrix activity, and advanced assembly techniques are enabling refiners to push the boundaries of propylene production, even in high-iron environments. Case study: increased propylene from heavier residues Taiyo Oil Company’s Shikoku refinery in Japan operates an advanced FCC unit designed by UOP and equipped with RxCat technology. The company’s strategic objective is to maximise profitability and operational flexibility by processing 100% untreated residue feed. This is a challenging goal due to significant fluctuations in feed quality, particularly in Conradson carbon residue and contaminant metals such as iron. Taiyo Oil’s FCC unit is tasked with producing high- quality fuels and petrochemicals, with a special focus on propylene, a key building block for the rapidly expanding petrochemical sector in Asia.

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AFX

DENALI AFX

AFX Denali AFX

0.9

Fe on Ecat Feed Fe

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

Figure 2 Proprietary mesoporous zeolite in Denali AFX enhances stability

Figure 3 Heavier feeds with higher iron processed during Denali AFX period

To achieve these objectives, Taiyo Oil has developed a sophisticated operational strategy. The refinery team closely monitors changes in FCC feed quality and operational parameters, flexibly adjusting catalyst addition rates based on feed metal content rather than solely on equilibrium catalyst metal content. This approach ensures stable performance and allows the unit to operate at maximum profitability, typically by maximising reactor temperature, catalyst circulation, and optimising the RxCat system. The main operational constraints are regenerator temperature and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) downstream flow rate, which limit the ability to maximise throughput and propylene yield. Taiyo Oil set out to further enhance profitability by processing even heavier feedstocks. This strategic move introduced new challenges: heavier feeds increase delta coke and regenerator temperature. Higher levels of metals, such as iron, introduced by these

partnered with Ketjen to identify a catalyst solution capable of handling heavier feeds with higher metal content while maximising propylene yields. After extensive feasibility studies and in-house R&D, Denali AFX catalyst was selected. This catalyst features a novel mesoporous zeolite and a metals-tolerant matrix, designed for enhanced stability, improved coke selectivity, and very low hydrogen transfer activity. The catalyst was custom-formulated for Taiyo’s application, with a focus on maximising accessibility and stability under high iron conditions. The impact of the new catalyst is illustrated in Figure 2 , which shows the enhanced stability and surface area of Denali AFX compared to the previous catalyst. Figure 3 highlights the increased iron content in the feed during the trial, while Figure 4 demonstrates the reduction in regenerator temperature achieved, even when processing heavier feeds. These results underscore the importance of tailored catalyst

feeds can negatively impact conversion, bottoms upgrading, selectivity, and catalyst morphology. The company needed to improve delta coke and LPG olefins selectivity to overcome these unit constraints, all while maintaining or improving propylene selectivity. To address these challenges, Taiyo Oil

770

760

750

740

730

AFX Denali AFX

720

710

Feed Conradson carbon residue (wt%)

Figure 4 Denali AFX reduces regenerator temperature with heavier feeds and higher CCR

Refining India

solutions, continuous process optimisation, and a close technical partnership. The successful trial of Denali AFX at Taiyo’s FCC unit demonstrated that advanced catalyst technology can enable refiners to process heavier, more contaminated feeds while maximising propylene yields and maintaining operational reliability. Notably, Denali AFX delivered an incremental profit of $0.25 per barrel at constant feed quality, with an additional $0.11 per barrel profit realised from throughput constraint relief due to lower regenerator temperature. Catalyst innovation for enhanced iron tolerance Catalyst innovation in the FCC industry has become essential for enhancing tolerance to metals contamination, especially iron, which poses significant operational and economic challenges for refiners. Iron poisoning occurs when mostly organic iron from feedstocks or process equipment deposits onto the external catalyst surface, leading to vitrification and the formation of glassy eutectic phases with other metals such as calcium, sodium, and silicon. This glassy layer occludes the catalyst’s pores, restricting the diffusion of larger hydrocarbon molecules and preventing them from reaching active cracking sites. “ Catalyst innovation in the FCC industry has become essential for enhancing tolerance to metals contamination, especially iron ” As a result, catalyst activity and bottoms cracking decline, selectivity is compromised, and the efficiency of bottoms cracking deteriorates, causing increased coke and slurry yields and ultimately reducing profitability. Iron poisoning can trigger the formation of nodules on catalyst particles, lowering their apparent bulk density (ABD) and causing fluidisation and circulation issues in the FCC unit standpipes. These operational problems can force unplanned unit shutdowns when standpipe defluidisation or loss of catalyst circulation occurs. To address these challenges, Ketjen’s has

developed SaFeGuard. This catalyst technology employs a unique matrix and Fe-resistant chemistry that retains excellent diffusion properties and catalyst accessibility even under extreme iron contamination. By minimising eutectic formation and keeping catalyst pores open, it enables refiners to operate FCC units at higher activity levels, process heavier and more contaminated feedstocks, and maintain effective bottoms cracking. This technology also demonstrates superior resistance to other contaminants, such as calcium, sodium, silicon, magnesium, nickel, and vanadium, making it highly effective for co-processing renewable feeds and unconventional crudes. Commercial trials have shown that SaFeGuard can deliver up to a 130% increase in catalyst accessibility, expressed by the Ketjen Accessibility Index (KAI). Consequently, it delivers improved unit activity and enhanced operational reliability, all while reducing catalyst addition rate. Such innovations are redefining what is possible to process in an FCC unit, empowering Case study: enhancing FCC catalyst performance under iron contamination A major North American refiner wanted to increase the amount of vacuum tower bottoms (VTB), a heavier, less refined part of crude oil, in their FCC unit feed. Processing more residue can help a refinery reduce feedstock costs and boost profitability, but it comes with a big challenge: the residue is contaminated with iron. Increasing residue in the feed risked reducing overall profitability and reliability. The refinery faced the possibility of lower product yields, higher costs for catalyst replacement, and more operational disruptions. Iron poisoning was not just a technical challenge – it was a barrier to achieving the refinery’s strategic goals. To solve these problems, they switched half of their FCC unit’s catalyst to SaFeGuard during a commercial trial. The unit processed a mix operators to maximise profitability and operational flexibility in an increasingly demanding feedstock landscape. of heavy feeds, with a focus on maximising the amount of residue. After the switch, clear improvements were observed:

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• The need for fresh catalyst additions decreased, helping control costs.

SaFeGuard performance improvement vs base

Table 1 shows how the right technology can help refiners adapt to tougher feedstocks and changing market demands. By using SaFeGuard, this refiner was able to process more residue, overcome the challenges of iron contamination, and improve both efficiency and profitability. Conclusion India’s refining sector is not just responding to demand; it is shaping the future of energy and materials that are produced. The sector is accelerating toward a more integrated, flexible, and sustainable refining model. Catalyst innovation is helping refiners unlock new value streams, improve margins, and build resilience in a rapidly evolving global refining landscape. PMcc is a mark of Technip Energies. Indmax is a mark of Lummus. HS-FCC is a mark of Axens/Technip. SaFeGuard and Denali AFX are marks of Ketjen.

Delta Base -22% +30% +0.4 -12% +2.4 -17% +18% +5.8 +2.7 +4.1 -4.2 -1.8 +0.3

Units MTPD

Feed rate Feed V+Ni Feed Fe Feed CCR Total CAR

ppm ppm wt%

MTPD

Ecat activity Ecat Ni+V Ecat added Fe

ppm ppm vol% vol% vol% vol% vol% wt%

Conversion

H-C4

Gasoline

LCO

Slurry Coke

Table 1

• The catalyst maintained its effectiveness, even as iron levels increased. • The refinery produced more of the desired products, such as gasoline and LPG.

Leonard Chan leonard.chan@ketjen.com

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Valorisation of plastic pyrolysis oil via co-processing in FCC units Optimising the value of PPO within a refinery involves its integration through co-processing in an FCC unit to enhance circularity

Sanju Kumari, Hemant Mishra, Somanath Kukade, and Pramod Kumar Hindustan Petroleum Green R&D Centre, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited

F luid catalytic cracking (FCC) is a vital lighter products, such as cracked naphtha, distillate, and olefins. It relies on a catalyst, typically composed of zeolites, to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller, valuable hydrocarbons. The process occurs in a fluidised bed reactor, where hot catalyst particles mix with the feedstock and undergo cracking reactions that produce a range of hydrocarbon products. One of the most common feedstocks for FCC is vacuum gas oil (VGO), a heavy distillate obtained from crude oil vacuum distillation. VGO contains long-chain hydrocarbons that are cracked into smaller, valuable hydrocarbon products, such as cracked naphtha, liquified petroleum gas (LPG) distillate, and olefins, through catalytic cracking. The catalyst, after being deactivated by coke deposition, is regenerated in a separate vessel where the coke is burnt off, restoring the catalyst’s activity for reuse in the process. refining process used to convert heavy hydrocarbon fractions into more valuable, As refiners explore alternative feedstocks to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and address environmental concerns, feedstocks such as plastic pyrolysis oil (PPO) are being considered

feedstocks. Integrating PPO into FCC operation offers environmental benefits, such as diverting plastic waste from landfills, reducing crude oil consumption, lowering emissions, and improving sustainability. Figure 1 illustrates the strategy for maximising the value of PPO within a refinery, demonstrating its integration through co-processing in an FCC unit for enhanced circularity. “ Integrating plastic pyrolysis oil into FCC operation offers environmental benefits, such as diverting plastic waste from landfills, reducing crude oil consumption, lowering emissions, and improving sustainability ” Operational challenges Processing PPO in an FCC unit presents significant challenges. Unlike VGO, which is relatively stable and well-characterised, PPO contains a variety of contaminants, including chloride, nitrogen, sulphur, olefins, diolefins, oxygenates, and metals, which can negatively impact catalyst performance and operational stability.

for processing in FCC units. PPO is obtained via thermal pyrolysis of plastic waste such as LDPE, HDPE, PP, and PTFE, producing a mixture of hydrocarbons

LDPE & HDPE

Pyrolysis plant

FCC unit

Propylene & fuels

Figure 1 Approach to valorise plastic pyrolysis oil in a refinery by co-processing in the FCC unit for enhanced circularity

that can resemble petroleum-based

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FCC catalyst feed and PPO properties

S. No Parameters

PPO 0.79

FCC catalyst feed

Parameters

Value

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Density, g/cc

0.938

MAT, wt%

Conradson carbon residue, wt%

0.1 58 2.8 11 50 70

1.7

Nickel, ppmw

3,746 2,283

Bromine number

2 0

Vanadium, ppmw

Diene

Total surface area, m²/g Apparent bulk density, g/cc

121 0.83 0.57 3.45

Sulphur, ppm Chloride, ppm

23,352

1.1

P 2 O 5 , wt% RE 2 O 3 , wt%

Total nitrogen, ppm

752

Table 1

Table 2

One major concern is the presence of oxygenates and olefinic components in PPO, which may lead to excessive coke formation during processing in the FCC unit. High coke yield can reduce catalyst efficiency and necessitate frequent regeneration cycles, “ Advances in catalyst technology, feedstock treatment, and process optimisation will play a crucial role in enabling the successful integration of plastic waste-derived feedstocks into existing refining infrastructure ” increasing operational costs. Additionally, contaminants such as chlorine, nitrogen, and sulphur can cause corrosion in the main fractionator and gas concentration section of the FCC unit, leading to maintenance issues and possible equipment degradation. High

chloride and nitrogen content of PPO causes ammonium chloride corrosion in the top trays of the main fractionator, whereas high sulphur content causes ammonium sulphide corrosion in the main fractionator overhead condenser. Ammonium chloride salt deposition can be avoided by operating the main fractionator column top temperature above the ammonium chloride sublimation temperature, whereas ammonium sulphide corrosion can be reduced in the overhead section by using wash water and corrosion inhibitors. The composition of PPO also tends to vary, depending on the source and type of plastic waste used in pyrolysis, making process optimisation challenging. Ultimately, while FCC is a highly efficient process for converting VGO into valuable products, adapting it for alternative feedstocks like PPO requires overcoming technical and operational challenges. Advances in catalyst technology, feedstock treatment, and process

optimisation will play a crucial role in enabling the successful integration of plastic waste-derived feedstocks into existing refining infrastructure. Co-processing of PPO in FCC unit Co-processing of plastic pyrolysis included the selection of oil suitable for HPCL FCC units, studying the impact of PPO on FCC product yields, tuning FCC

100% FCC feed 0.5% PPO + 99.5% FCC cat feed 5% PPO + 95% FCC cat feed

Dry gas

LPG

CRN

LCO

Resid

Coke

Conversion

Figure 2 Product yields obtained in laboratory catalytic cracking for 0.5% and 5% PPO processing

Refining India

112

Main fractionator top temperature Ammonium chloride

FCC riser

110

108

sublimation temperature

106

PPO from tanker

104

VGO

102

PPO

100

Before PPO trial

During PPO trial

PPO storage vessel

Lift steam

Flow meter

The catalytic cracking experiments were carried out at 540ºC and a catalyst-to-oil ratio of seven. In laboratory experiments, it was observed that co-processing of PPO increases LPG, dry gas, and coke, and reduces cracked naphtha, LCO, and resid yield. Product yields obtained from laboratory experiments with the 0.5% and 5% PPO processing are given in Figure 2 . Operational scheme for PPO processing in FCC unit Since PPO is not a typical feedstock for the FCC unit in a refinery, a dedicated PPO skid was installed near the FCC unit to facilitate its injection into the riser. The skid includes a storage tank, an inlet hose for receiving PPO from a tanker, an outlet hose, a pump, and a flow meter. PPO, along with lift steam, was injected into the riser, with no heating provisions provided for the storage tank and feeding line. The process flow scheme of the PPO skid is illustrated in Figure 3 . Demonstration of PPO co-processing in the FCC unit A trial of co-processing PPO was carried out in the resid FCC unit at the Mumbai refinery, which has a feed capacity of 1.27 MMPTA. In this trial, 0.5% of PPO was processed with FCC catalyst feed. No gum formation or atomisation issues were observed when injecting PPO. Based on the chloride and nitrogen content of PPO, the ammonium chloride sublimation temperature was estimated (around 104ºC) and, accordingly, the main fractionator top temperature was kept higher than the sublimation temperature Figure 4 Main fractionator top temperature and respective ammonium sublimation temperature before and during the PPO trial

PPO pump

Figure 3 Process flow scheme of PPO skid

process parameters to mitigate corrosion issues in the main fractionator and gas concentration section, and injection into the FCC riser. Various qualities of PPO are evaluated to identify those with minimal chlorine, sulphur, nitrogen, oxygenates, and diene content, ensuring reduced negative effects on FCC product yields. This selection process helps in mitigating operational challenges, such as corrosion and gum formation. Catalytic cracking experiments using the optimised PPO were conducted at Hindustan Petroleum Green R&D Centre (HPGRDC) to assess its performance and feasibility in FCC applications. Catalytic cracking experiments The catalytic cracking experiments for the co-processing of plastic pyrolysis with FCC feed were carried out in a fixed-fluid-bed micro- reactor unit. Product gas was analysed in Micro- GC, and liquid product was analysed in low- temperature simulated distillation equipment. The liquid product cuts considered were cracked naphtha (C 5 at 221°C), light cycle oil (LCO) (221°C-343°C), and resid (343°C and higher). Conversion was obtained by the sum of the yields of dry gas, LPG, cracked naphtha (CRN), and coke. Mumbai refinery resid FCC unit catalyst feed, along with 0.5% and 5% of PPO, was used as feedstock. The properties of the catalyst feed and PPO are given in Table 1 . Mumbai refinery resid FCC equilibrium catalyst (E-cat) was used for catalytic cracking experiments, and the properties of E-cat are given in Table 2 .

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chloride and iron content were within the desired limits due to the low chloride, sulphur, and nitrogen content of the PPO selected for processing in the FCC unit. Main fractionator boot water corrosion parameters, which are monitored before and during the PPO trial, are given in Figure 6 . Achieving circularity in processing PPO in the FCC unit

Before PPO trial During PPO trial

Dry gas

LPG

CRN

LCO

Resid

Coke

Conversion

Figure 5 Product yields before and during the PPO trial at the Mumbai refinery FCC unit

PPO was processed in an FCC unit, where it was transformed into fuels and propylene (present in the LPG fraction). If propylene is recovered from the LPG fraction, it can be converted again to plastics such as polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile, which closes the plastic loop and enhances circularity and sustainability. This process not only reduces dependence on virgin fossil resources but also helps mitigate plastic waste accumulation. By integrating PPO into refining operations, industries can contribute to a more resource-efficient and environmentally responsible economy. Summary Plastic pyrolysis oil processing in the FCC unit was successfully done without negatively impacting FCC product yields, and no major operational issues were faced in terms of unit corrosion and gum formation. The co-processing of plastic pyrolysis oil increased conversion, dry gas, LPG, and cracked naphtha, and reduced LCO, resid, and coke yield.

0 2 1 3 4 6 5 8 7 9

Before PPO trial During PPO trial

Chloride (mg/L)

Iron (mg/L)

to avoid ammonium chloride corrosion in the top trays of the main fractionator. Due to the low sulphur and nitrogen content of the PPO used in the trial, no ammonium sulphide corrosion was anticipated. The main fractionator top temperature and respective ammonium sublimation temperature before and during the PPO trial are given in Figure 4 . The co-processing of PPO increased conversion, dry gas, LPG, and cracked naphtha, and reduced LCO, resid and coke yield. Product yields obtained during the trial are given in Figure 5 . Impact of co-processing of PPO on corrosion parameters Processing PPO is suspected to cause corrosion in the main fractionator top trays and overhead condensers due to high chloride and sulphur content. However, corrosion parameters such as ammonium chloride sublimation temperature, overhead condenser boot water pH, and Figure 6 Main fractionator boot water corrosion parameters before and during the PPO trial

Pramod Kumar pramodkumar@hpcl.in Somanath Kukade somanathrkukade@hpcl.in Hemant Mishra Hemant.Mishra@hpcl.in Sanju Kumari Sanju.Kumari@hpcl.in

Refining India

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Transforming C 4 into high-octane gasoline

An innovative and sustainable solution for producing BS-VI-compliant regular and premium-grade gasoline

Prosenjit Maji, Pushkar Varshney, Talari Raju, Satyen Kumar Das, R K Kaushik Singha, and Alok Sharma Research & Development Centre, Indian Oil Corporation Limited

I n recent times, environmental regulations on fuel specifications have forced refiners to search for sustainable and greener technologies. Currently, Indian refineries are producing Bharat Stage (BS) VI-quality fuels as per the Auto Fuel Policy mandate effective from April 2020. Over the past 20 years, fuel specifications have become increasingly stringent, as evident from the reduction in sulphur content by 99.5% to 10 ppm in BS- VI. Additionally, the research octane number (RON) requirement has been enhanced by four units, from 87 to 91 for normal-grade gasoline and 95 for premium-grade gasoline in BS-VI. The aromatics and olefins contents have also reduced by more than 30% in the past 20 years, which has adversely impacted the RON. The requirement of meeting the sulphur levels indicated above in the overall gasoline pool while maintaining other parameters such as RON and motor octane number (MON), total aromatics, total olefins, and Reid vapour pressure (RVP), is quite challenging due to the associated RON loss on deep desulphurisation. More specifically, the production of premium- grade gasoline poses a significant challenge for refiners using existing refinery processes. Hence, some additional streams with high octane will be required to bridge the gap. Considering the above, IOCL R&D has developed the Octamax process for the conversion of C₄ streams from the catalytic cracker and/or naphtha cracker to produce a high-octane stream (blending RON [BRON] >110), which can be directly blended into a gasoline pool. Figure 1 shows the typical

C stream

Olenic LPG from

Unconverted C to LPG

C/C splitter

c atalytic/ na phtha c racker

Octamax Unit

C stream

block diagram for an Octamax unit. Owing to its high BRON, it provides refiners with significant flexibility in meeting stringent gasoline specifications and enables an increase in gasoline production by blending low-octane naphtha. Product to gasoline blending (RON >110) Figure 1 Typical block diagram of an Octamax unit With the rollout of E20 gasoline across India, the demand for higher base gasoline octane has become more critical, as the blended fuel must meet a minimum RON of 95. In this context, Octamax presents a strategic advantage. Unlike traditional octane boosters, such as MTBE or ethanol, which contribute to the overall oxygen content of gasoline, the Octamax product is a for refiners using existing refinery processes. Additional streams with high octane will be required to bridge the gap ” “ Production of premium-grade gasoline poses a significant challenge

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Feedstock composition of Octamax technology

Components 1-Butene Iso-Butene Trans-Butene Cis-Butene Iso-Butane N-Butane Iso-Pentane

Composition (wt%)

9-14

16-22 11-14

8-11

30-35 7-10 0.5-2 0.1-0.5

Pentane

Table 1

hydrocarbon-based, oxygenate-free stream. This allows refiners to maximise their ethanol blending potential without breaching regulatory limits on oxygen content. As a result, the product not only supports compliance with E20 fuel norms but also unlocks further flexibility in gasoline formulation. Process chemistry In Octamax technology, C₄ olefins present in the stream from the catalytic cracker and/or naphtha cracker are oligomerised into corresponding C₈ and higher olefins. Dimerisation of iso-butene to iso-octene is a predominant reaction in this technology. It takes place in the presence of a heterogeneous acidic catalyst under mild temperature and pressure conditions. The product contains primarily iso-octene, along with some co-dimers and C 12 oligomers. The selectivity of the desired dimer product is improved through the addition of polar compound(s) into the reactor as an additive, which suppresses the formation of higher oligomers like trimers (C 12 olefins) and tetramers (C 16 olefins). One of the key features of the technology is the in-situ production of the polar compound(s) in a separate fixed-bed hydration reactor, using a portion of the C₄ stream as feed. understanding of the process, encompassing not only catalyst performance but also flow configuration, and process control strategies ” “ The bench-scale experimentation helped develop a comprehensive

Process development The process know-how for Octamax was developed indigenously by IOCL R&D through a combination of innovative process design, catalyst system optimisation, and rigorous experimental validation. To translate lab- scale insights into practical application, a custom-designed bench-scale unit was developed to simulate real-world commercial plant conditions. This unit was instrumental in bridging the gap between fundamental research and process design by allowing continuous operation under controlled, scalable conditions. Key features of the bench unit included feedstock pre-conditioning, temperature and pressure control systems, and an integrated product separation section to mimic downstream processing. The bench-scale experimentation helped develop a comprehensive understanding of the process, encompassing not only catalyst performance but also flow configuration, and process control strategies. These insights proved invaluable in designing the final process scheme, including start-up and shutdown procedures, troubleshooting protocols, and methodologies for catalyst loading and regeneration. Figure 2 55 kTA Octamax unit at Mathura Refinery

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Characteristics of Octamax product

100 80 120 140

Properties

Values

Density, kg/m³

720-750

RVP @ 38 o C , kPa

<20 <20

Metals (V, Ni, Fe, CU, Zn & Na), ppb

Total sulphur, ppmw

Depends on feed sulphur

Saturates, wt%

Olefins, wt%

>95 <0.5 <0.5 >110

500

1000

1500

2000

Aromatics, wt% Oxygenates, wt%

Time on stream (TOS), days

Blending RON

Deployment at Mathura Refinery The Octamax unit at Mathura Refinery was successfully commissioned in January 2018 (see Figure 2 ). Since then, the unit has outperformed design estimates with respect to BRON and product yield. A consistent product BRON of 122 has been achieved, exceeding the guaranteed value of 108. Figure 3 shows the time on stream vs BRON of the product since commissioning. The consistent production of such a high RON has enabled the refinery to augment its gasoline pool with respect to both quality and quantity. Owing to its high RON and its blending into the gasoline pool, a significant quantity of low-RON naphtha, typically 2.0-2.2 tons per ton of Octamax product, is upgraded to the gasoline pool. Advantages The Octamax technology employs a simple configuration, including fixed-bed reactors and a distillation column with environmentally safe solid catalyst operating under moderate conditions. It offers a superior alternative to conventional alkylation technologies, which rely on hazardous homogeneous catalysts like sulphuric acid or hydrofluoric acid, while also ensuring lower Capex and Opex. The key features of the technology are: • Novel process scheme for maximising conversion to high octane components. • In-situ production of polar components in a separate reactor. • Accepts wider range of feedstocks (C₄ stream from catalytic and naphtha cracker). • Feed pretreatment is optional, depending on the level of impurities in the C₄ stream. Figure 3 Performance of Octamax unit at Mathura Refinery in terms of its product BRON

Table 2

Beyond new plant design, the established experimental methodologies are equally applicable for troubleshooting, process optimisation, and catalyst selection or replacement in existing units. This flexibility reinforces Octamax as a technologically mature and refinery-ready solution, supported by a strong foundation of in-house scientific research and engineering design. Feedstocks and characteristics The Octamax technology accepts a wider range of cracked feedstocks, including the C 4 stream from fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) and the naphtha cracker. The typical range of feed composition is given in Table 1 . Typical characteristics of the product are given in Table 2 . It is a high-octane, olefin- rich hydrocarbon stream with a blending RON exceeding 110, making it highly suitable for direct blending into the gasoline pool. It is oxygenate-free, offering distinct advantages over conventional octane boosters, such as methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), ethyl tert- butyl ether (ETBE), tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) or tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE), or ethanol in scenarios where oxygen content limits must be observed. The product also exhibits favourable volatility properties. Its chemical composition, predominantly composed of C 8 and C 12 olefinic dimers with a minimum concentration of saturates and aromatics, is compatible with other refinery blendstocks. These attributes collectively make the product a valuable blending component for both regular and premium-grade gasoline formulations.

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Role in E20 gasoline blending strategy Under the ethanol blended motor spirit (EBMS) programme, the Indian Government has targeted 20% renewable ethanol blending in the gasoline pool by 2025-26. The introduction of E20 gasoline marks a significant shift in India’s strategy toward greener transportation fuels. While ethanol offers environmental and economic benefits, its inclusion in the gasoline pool poses complex challenges for refiners, especially in terms of maintaining fuel properties within regulatory limits. The blending of ethanol into gasoline also increases the RON, as ethanol possesses a high octane number (RON ~109). However, EBMS specifications require a four unit higher RON (95) compared to unblended gasoline (91) to meet the performance, emissions, and durability standards of modern engines. Additionally, ethanol increases the RVP of the gasoline blend, which can affect volatility and drivability. Ethanol also contributes substantially to the overall oxygen content of the blend. Since the permissible oxygen content in gasoline is limited to 7.4wt%, excessive reliance on other oxygenate-based octane boosters, such as MTBE or ETBE, can restrict ethanol blending capacity, creating a trade-off between octane improvement and regulatory compliance. In this context, the oxygenate-free nature of the Octamax product emerges as a key enabler for maximising ethanol blending without compromising on octane quality or breaching oxygen limits. With a BRON exceeding 110, it can serve as a high-octane base component, compensating for the presence of lower-octane hydrocarbons in the blend while preserving oxygen headroom for ethanol. The product also has low RVP, which provides flexibility for the addition of ethanol. This gives refiners the much-needed flexibility to design compliant E20 fuels without the risk of exceeding mandated oxygen thresholds. Moreover, the use of Octamax product supports broader fuel formulation strategies where low- RON naphtha streams, which would otherwise require costly upgrading, can be blended into the gasoline pool. The resulting increase in pool volume and blending freedom can be beneficial for Indian refiners as they adapt to the E20 roadmap and plan for even higher ethanol blends in the future.

• Environmentally safe operation. • High BRON (>100) and low RVP of product. The product obtained is a high RON and low RVP gasoline blending stream, which can be utilised for direct blending without further treatment. It has been observed that there is a buffer with respect to olefins (maximum limit 21 vol%) in the motor spirit (MS) blend of the majority of Indian refineries. Typically, FCC gasoline is the only source of olefins in MS, and there is a reduction in the olefins content of FCC gasoline due to deep desulphurisation. Blending of ethanol further enhances the buffer available with respect to olefins content in the gasoline pool. The high RON (>110) of the Octamax product provides significant octane credit to the gasoline pool, enabling the upgradation of low-RON naphtha into finished gasoline. This octane buffer enables refiners to incorporate a higher proportion of otherwise marginal streams, which effectively swell the gasoline pool and “ While ethanol offers environmental and economic benefits, its inclusion in the gasoline pool poses complex challenges for refiners, especially in terms of maintaining fuel properties within regulatory limits ” improve overall yield. Additionally, the superior octane quality of the Octamax stream offers operational flexibility in producing premium- grade fuels, such as IndianOil’s XP100, catering to niche high-performance markets. This strategic blending flexibility not only enhances product slate optimisation but also contributes to improved gross refining margins (GRMs). In addition to its economic benefits, it is an environmentally friendly technology that not only enables the production of cleaner gasoline but is also inherently safe. It does not involve the use of hazardous chemicals, generates no hazardous effluents, and has an overall low carbon footprint. It enables the production of cleaner gasoline that meets BS-VI specifications and thus contributes towards vehicular emission reduction. Since the technology employs moderate temperature and pressure, the energy consumption per unit quantity of feed is significantly lower, resulting in a low carbon footprint.

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