Comparison of carbon capture technologies
Technology
Description
Advantages
Challenges
TRL
Estimated cost ($/tCO₂)
Post-combustion Separation of CO₂
Can be retrofitted to to existing plants; commercially available
High energy demand for solvent regeneration; solvent degradation
8-9
40-120
capture
from plants, flue gas in fossil fuel typically using amine solvents Fuel is gasified to produce a mixture of H₂ and CO₂; CO₂ is separated before
Pre-combustion
Higher CO₂
Requires gasification
7-8
40-80
capture
concentration enables easier separation; compatible with H₂
infrastructure; limited retrofit
potential
combustion
production.
Oxy-fuel
Fuel is burned in early pure oxygen, resulting in flue gas
Produces nearly pure CO₂ stream; high efficiency; oxygen
Oxygen production is energy-intensive; retrofitting challenges
6-7
30-80
combustion
of CO₂ and H₂O
byproduct
Direct air
CO₂ captured directly from ambient air
Removes atmospheric CO₂; geographic flexibility; enables negative emissions
Very high energy demand; high cost; scalability challenges
6-7
600-1,200
capture (DAC)
using chemical
sorbents or solvents
Chemical looping
Fuel oxidation via metal oxides, enabling inherent CO₂ separation
Produces concentrated Complex process
5-6
30-60
CO₂ stream;
design; limited
(potential)
potentially energy
large-scale
efficient
demonstrations
Membrane technologies
Selective membranes separate CO₂ from
Modular design; no solvent use; lower
Limited selectivity and durability; often requires
5-7
40-90
gas mixtures
maintenance
high pressure
Table 1
capture (DAC) is emerging as a complementary approach. Though energy- and cost-intensive, DAC removes CO₂ directly from ambient air, offering geographic flexibility and the potential for negative emissions. Together, these technologies form the foundation for CCU applications, ranging from direct use in industry to transformative pathways that produce fuels, chemicals, and advanced materials. Continued innovation and cost reduction will be essential for scaling their role in the carbon economy (see Table 1 ). Utilisation pathways: from waste to value Direct use Direct use of captured carbon relies on the inherent physical and chemical properties of CO₂ for application in a range of industrial
processes and products, creating both economic and environmental value (see Figure 2 ). Building materials The construction sector offers one of the most promising direct use pathways through the mineralisation of CO₂ in building materials. Technologies such as CO₂ curing in concrete, production of synthetic aggregates, and mineral carbonation allow CO₂ to be locked into durable products while improving material strength (Constanz, et al., 2013 ). Companies like CarbonCure, Solidia Technologies, and Blue Planet have demonstrated commercial viability, with studies estimating that building materials could store billions of tons of CO₂ annually. This reduces the carbon footprint of construction while providing long-term storage and positions
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