Catalysis 2026 Issue

REFINING GAS PROCESSING PETROCHEMICALS catalysis ptq 2026

PTQ supplement

THE FCCU IN TRANSITION How refiners can turn challenges into opportunities beyond 2030

Strategies to enhance the profitability of unit operations

VIEW SUMMARY

Don’t Just Survive. Operate confidently with BASF.

BASF’s in situ FCC catalyst turns iron from a refinery challenge into a profit opportunity

catalysis ptq

3 Growing sector of petroleum and biomass catalyst Rene Gonzalez

5 catalysisq&a

2026 www.digitalrefining.com

15 Processing extreme feeds in FCC units Using catalyst technology while evaluating combined feeds and optimising process conditions to maximise benefits within unit hardware and operational constraints Hernando Salgado, Amitkumar Shah, and Myrlla Galdino R S S Machado BASF

21 FCC modelling and catalyst evaluation A compendium of FCC modelling best practices at a Marathon refinery serves as

a practical guide for refinery engineers Alan Kramer and Patrick McSorley Ketjen Bridget Cadigan Marathon Garyville Refinery

27 Clean-up of fixed-bed reactor naphtha feed streams: Part 1 Commercial demonstration of cleaning feed streams like coal tar naphtha feed to a hydrodesulphurisation reactor using an unconventional filter Chi-Yao Chen, Mark Zih-Yao Shen, Tzong-Bin Lin, Fu-Ming Lee, Maw-Tien Lee, Yin-Hsien Chen, Kao-Chih Ricky Hsu, and Fang-Pin Chen Shin Chuang Technology Co. Ltd Chia-Yi, Taiwan Kevin Gagen Unicat Catalyst Technologies, LLC 35 Circular aromatics by breakthrough technological synergies Smart catalyst design and cascading pyrolysis processes deliver record BTX yields from waste plastics and biomass sources Danny Verboekend, Judy El Jablaoui, and Kurt Du Mong Zeopore Technologies NV Diana Ciolca and Niels J. Schenk BioBTX B.V. 41 AI optimisation in closed-loop control Three case studies show how non-linear problems of the modern refining and chemicals industry are solved using AI to deliver breakthrough value Edison Tan Imubit 47 Boosting ATR methanol capacity within existing assets Revamp strategies combining ethane co‑feeding and intermediate condensation unlock a 5% methanol capacity increase, improving conversion and carbon efficiency VK Arora Kinetics Process Improvements (KPI) 53 Pathways to chemical recycling of waste plastic pyrolysis oil Chemical recycling is essential for managing problematic plastic waste, highlighting the pathways and challenges in converting waste plastics into high-quality feedstocks Trine Dabros and Milica Folić Topsoe

Cover: Start-up of BASF steam cracker at the Verbung site in Zhanjing, China. Courtesy of BASF SE.

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Growing sector of petroleum and biomass catalyst

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2026

A ccording to a January 2026 study from Precedence Research, the global refinery catalyst market size was estimated at $10.19 billion in 2025. It is expected to increase from $10.63 billion in 2026 to $15.60 billion by 2035, representing a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.35%. The market is driven by stringent environmental regulations, technological advancements, rising refining activities, and a focus on energy transition. Against this backdrop, PTQ Catalysis 2026 includes a compendium of real-world solutions involving catalytic processes, ranging from pathways and challenges associated with chemical recycling to AI-based solu- tions that balance catalyst deactivation with increased short-term yield. Catalyst-based solutions help provide the margins leverage needed in an era of capital shrinkage, where reports of billion-dollar upgrades are on hold despite healthy margins. For example, a Worley Consulting assessment has noted investments in renewable diesel and sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) have slowed. Instead, refiners are turning to smaller, tactical improvements averaging around $35 million, including jet fuel treatment units, alkylation upgrades, and heat exchanger additions. These projects, according to Worley, are quick to implement, reversible, and scalable – ideal for a market where demand signals are mixed, and policy direction remains uncertain. According to a November 2025 report by the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), global oil inventories are expected to continue rising through 2026, putting downward pressure on oil prices in the coming months. Petrochemicals will account for one out every six of those barrels by 2030. Still, the momentum is clear. For example, SAF is poised to play an increasingly important role in decarbonising US aviation. This is aided by the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), federal tax credits, and state-level incentives aimed at accelerating clean fuel adoption. Catalytic-based petrochemical processes, such as for polyethylene (PE), are expanding. The US exported 9.1 million tons of PE (all grades combined) through July 2025, up 5% from the same period in 2024. India is the world’s second-largest PE importer, with volume (all grades) in 2024 of 3.1 million tons, a distant second to China’s 16.7 million tons. Reliance plans to add polypropylene capacity in 2026. Polyolefin projects are also being considered by GAIL, Haldia, and others. Technological advancements in steam cracking and catalytic pyrolysis are improv- ing feedstock flexibility and yield efficiency, driving downstream integration oppor - tunities. For example, these developments benefit the US pygas market, which is gaining momentum due to rising demand for benzene derivatives used in indus - trial solvents, styrene, and resins. Meanwhile, the Asia Pacific bio-refinery sector is experiencing significant shifts driven by technological advancements, policy sup - port, and evolving market demands. Enhanced feedstock processing efficiencies and the integration of advanced biotechnologies are elevating operational competitiveness across the region. Additionally, increased investments in R&D are fostering innovation in bio-based products, including biofuels, biochemicals, and bioplastics, which are gaining mar- ket traction. Catalysts are foundational, not optional, in enhancing these feedstock processing efficiencies and advancing biofuels, biochemicals, and bioplastics. Catalyst and reactor technologies determine whether renewable pathways are technically viable, economically competitive, and scalable vs fossil-based routes. In practice, almost every bio-based process capable of competing with mature petroleum routes is a catalyst-enabled process. They lower reaction temperatures and pressures reduce hydrogen consumption, improve selectivity, and enable con- tinuous processing, as discussed in this issue and future editions of PTQ .

Editor Rene Gonzalez editor@petroleumtechnology.com tel: +1 713 449 5817 Managing Editor Rachel Storry rachel.storry@emap.com Editorial Assistant Lisa Harrison lisa.harrison@emap.com Graphics Peter Harper Business Development Director Paul Mason sales@petroleumtechnology.com tel: +44 7841 699431 Managing Director Richard Watts richard.watts@emap.com Circulation Fran Havard circulation@petroleumtechnology. com

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PTQ (Petroleum Technology Quarterly) (ISSN No: 1632-363X, USPS No: 014-781) is published quarterly plus annual Catalysis edition by EMAP and is distributed in the US by SP/Asendia, 17B South Middlesex Avenue, Monroe NJ 08831. Periodicals postage paid at New Brunswick, NJ. Postmaster: send address changes to PTQ (Petroleum Technology Quarterly), 17B South Middlesex Avenue, Monroe NJ 08831. Back numbers available from the Publisherat $30 per copy inc postage.

Rene Gonzalez

Catalysis 2026

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Go Heavy!

Process heavier FCC feedstocks without compromise. Grace’s FUSION ® catalyst technology transforms heavy resid operations. It’s built on a breakthrough process platform and a proprietary matrix binding system that fuses two of Grace’s most advanced technologies into a single-particle powerhouse. FUSION ® delivers unmatched coke selectivity and bottoms-cracking performance, enabling refiners to run heavier, higher-metal feedstocks without added catalyst or circulation bottlenecks. Proven in the Field Units running FUSION ® operate with Ecat metals levels exceeding 12,000 ppm Ni+V. Talk to your Grace representative to learn how FUSION ® can handle your heaviest feedstocks.

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Q Can you point out cases where hydrotreater catalyst regeneration met the refiner’s expectations? A Steve Mayo, VP Technology & Business Development, smayo@eurecat.com and Michael Martinez, Application Technology Manager, mmartinez@eurecat.com, Eurecat Regenerating hydrotreating catalysts is a proven strategy to reduce operating costs and environmental impact while maintaining reliable performance when applied in suitable services. Effective regeneration requires balancing carbon and sulphur removal with carefully controlled tempera- tures to prevent surface area loss and damage to the active phase. Traditionally, regeneration restored 90% or more of original catalyst activity. Newer-generation catalysts may require rejuvenation in addition to regeneration to restore activity to near-original fresh (or even above it in some cases). Given the high level of activity recovery, regenerated/rejuvenated catalysts can usually be applied in units with operating conditions comparable to the prior fresh catalyst installation. Typical applications include naphtha, kerosene, distillate, and some vacuum gas oil (VGO) hydrotreaters. Successful catalyst reuse begins with disciplined unload- ing. Each container should be clearly labelled and sampled immediately upon discharge. Proper identification and rep - resentative sampling enable accurate analysis, ensuring that contaminated material is segregated from uncontami- nated catalyst for more effective regeneration. The catalyst unloading method is critical for minimising particle length reduction and preserving structural integrity. For free-flowing catalysts, gravity dumping is preferred because it imposes significantly lower mechanical stress compared to vacuum unloading. When catalysts exhibit poor flowability, specialised technologies such as Eurecat’s proprietary CarboDump and UltiCat can be used to break up agglomerates and enable gravity-assisted discharge, thereby reducing particle damage and maximising catalyst suitability for reuse. For units operating at higher activity, regenerated cata- lysts can be further enhanced through rejuvenation treat- ments that modify the active phase and transform its morphology. In this way, performance can be restored to near-fresh levels or beyond. Commercial rejuvenation tech- nologies, such as Eurecat’s proprietary EBoost, have dem - onstrated activity improvements over regeneration alone, exceeding 30 RVA points. Residual vanadium activity (RVA) is a numerical measure of how much catalytic activity has been lost due to vanadium poisoning, and how much of that activity can be recovered through rejuvenation. This increase in performance expands the window for reusing catalysts to more demanding services. It also allows the use of hybrid loading strategies, where rejuve- nated catalysts are positioned in reaction zones governed by mass transfer rather than intrinsic activity, while fresh or

Q What aspects of AI can be leveraged to optimise reac- tor and catalyst design? A Jumal Shah, Hydrogen Market Manager, Jumal.shah@ matthey.com, and Paul Clark, Digital Transformation Director, Catalyst Technologies, paul.clark@matthey.com, Johnson Matthey We will not provide answers in isolation; its real value lies in how we apply proven techniques to strengthen existing processes and accelerate innovation. From a JM perspec- tive, the opportunity is to combine AI with deep domain expertise to deliver practical, scalable solutions that improve productivity, enable tailored designs and break new boundaries. Scale and productivity AI can enable greater throughput and efficiency by automat - ing scientific workflows, accelerating candidate screening, and simplifying research tasks. Increasingly, JM expects to be able to integrate agentic tools tailored for scientific and engineering processes, which will rapidly increase the pro- ductivity of our scientists and engineers. Accelerated computational chemistry techniques enable rapid screening of catalyst formulation candidates. Once AI-generated models are validated with experimental data, high-throughput screening can be streamlined through more targeted testing plans, reducing time, resources, and overall development costs. These approaches drive internal processes with greater efficiency while maintaining rigor - ous validation. Personalisation Leveraging AI to gather, process, and interpret data from operational reactors and catalysts helps tailor solutions to specific operational challenges. For example, understanding performance under variable conditions enables the design of catalyst and reactor configurations that address intermit - tency in renewably powered plants. This data-driven insight ensures solutions are optimised for real-world outcomes rather than generic scenarios. Pushing the boundaries of design and operation Generative AI techniques open the door to catalyst and reactor structures that would be impossible for a human to conceive alone. By combining these algorithms with experimental validation, novel geometries and formula- tions that push the boundaries of conventional design can be explored. Once in the field, we can help our customers maintain optimum operation with advanced simulations for real-time performance modelling, while facilitating multi- objective optimisation to balance conversion, selectivity, efficiency, and cost. Additionally, data-driven approaches such as active learning help continuously review process requirements and adapt to changing operational needs.

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new-generation catalysts are reserved for more demand- ing zones. CarboDump, UltiCat, and EBoost are marks of Eurecat. Q How can unpredictable cycle performance be controlled when co-processing renewables? A Rich Smith, Advisor, Becht, rsmith@becht.com Factors to consider when creating predictable, and ideally longer, reactor cycle lengths focus on reactor operations and catalyst considerations, as well as the immediate impact of co-processing renewables. As discussed elsewhere, these impacts include increased hydrogen consumption and associated first-bed temperature rise. Reactor average temperatures required to meet product specifications may also increase. Before addressing factors that influence reactor catalyst run length, it is important to recognise that other parts of the plant may be affected during the cycle. Co-processing renewables can introduce or shift damage mechanisms and change which equipment is most susceptible. Two exam- ples include the movement of the water dewpoint further upstream toward the reactor in the effluent cooling system due to increased water production, and an increased poten- tial for carbonate stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resulting from CO₂ generated by decarboxylation reactions. Manage renewable feedstock qualities Consistent and effective renewable feed pretreatment is critical to maximising catalyst utilisation. Of particular impor- tance are maintaining stable and low levels of alkali and alka- line earth metals, other metals, filtrable solids, chlorides, and acid number. Consider catalyst impact: hydrotreating base metals and dewaxing Ni-Mo–based catalysts are generally preferred when co-pro- cessing renewable feedstocks with fossil-origin feeds. This preference is typically attributed to the higher sensitivity of Co-Mo active sites, relative to Ni-Mo, to temporary deacti- vation from CO produced during decarbonylation reactions associated with renewable feed hydrotreating. Catalyst run length must also be considered when produc- ing distillate products for markets with stringent cold-flow property specifications (e.g., cloud point, pour point, and cold filter plugging point). If a distillate dewaxing catalyst is used in the same reactor as the hydrotreating catalyst to address impacts from normal paraffins produced during renewable feed hydrotreating, the resulting displacement of hydrotreat- ing catalyst volume should be considered. In addition, the potential impacts on light ends and naphtha production, particularly at end of run, should be accounted for. Manage hydrogen partial pressure Increased propane and CO/CO₂ formation will reduce hydro - gen partial pressure if not properly managed. In units with recycle loops and amine absorbers, care must be taken to manage increased rich amine loading from combined H₂S and CO₂. In systems without amine absorbers, higher

hydrogen bleed rates may be required to control CO₂ and propane build-up in the recycle gas. Avoid unmanageable reactor pressure drop build-up Renewable feeds typically contain higher levels of phos - phorous, heavy metals, and calcium than fossil-origin feeds, making proper grading and optimisation of demetallation catalyst essential. Changes in feed acid number, combined with susceptible metallurgy in elevated-temperature feed sections, may also increase corrosion rates, contributing to reactor pressure drop build-up from corrosion products. A Dhairya Soni, Technical Service, Renewables Lead, Crystaphase, Dhairya.soni@crystaphase.com Cycle length in co-processing units can become unpredict- able when the fouling drivers for that specific service are not clearly understood. Contaminants drive fouling not only in the hydrotreater but also in upstream equipment such as feed preheat exchangers, which can accelerate pressure drop rise. Co-processing adds complexity because renewable and fossil feedstocks can each introduce unique foulants. Fossil feeds with high total acid number (TAN) can generate corro- sion products that build up as solids in the reactor. Renewable feeds can contain higher levels of phosphorus, metals, and free fatty acids (FFA), each of which can contribute to foulant formation through different mechanisms. In both feed types, higher unsaturation can increase the tendency for carbon- based polymerisation deposits. Getting cycle performance under control starts with more frequent, more accurate combined-feed analytical testing so operators can quantify what is being delivered in the feed and connect it to ∆P trends. From there, lowering contami - nant levels – by purchasing a pretreated renewable feed or pretreating on-site – can significantly reduce foulant genera - tion and extend run length. Even once contaminants in the feed have been reduced, a strategically designed filtration system in the hydrotreater is often necessary, as fouling can still be prevalent and pressure drop can still be the cycle-limiting constraint. Incorporating catalytic activity into a filtration system using materials such as ActiPhase technology encourages fouling in the filtration section rather than deeper in the reactor, thereby helping to slow pressure drop growth. ActiPhase is a mark of Crystaphase. A Joris Mertens, Principal Consultant, KBC (A Yokogawa Company), joris.mertens@kbc.global Co-processing comes with a risk of catalyst deactivation, corrosion and cold flow property degradation, as we dis - cussed in PTQ Q1 2026. The main takeaway was that a cost/ benefit analysis should be made when increasing the levels of co-processing bio-feeds in conventional hydrotreaters. However, once a co-processing baseline has been estab- lished, there is still a risk of premature shutdown, and con- trolling cycle performance when co-processing vegetable oils and animal fats is primarily an issue of controlling the quality of the biofeeds. Biofeeds should be checked prior to feeding to a hydrotreater, just as a refinery will not replace a

Catalysis 2026

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Rethinking Old Problems

More with Less

Revamp projects are difficult. Limitations imposed by plot space, congested pipe racks, and outdated equipment, to name a few, present unique challenges. Solutions that rely on excessive margins or comfortable designs lead to overspend. Now more than ever, process designers must find solutions that do more with less. P roven M ethods There is growing awareness that better scope definition earlier in the engineering phase saves time, reduces overall engineering cost, and leads to more successful projects. There is no argument that work completed during Conceptual and Feasibility phases is critical to getting a project on the right path. Engineers at Process Consulting Services, Inc. have developed a proven approach that makes the most of this precious time. At site, PCS engineers coordinate rigorous test runs, much of it through direct field measurements. Data collected is invaluable and often leads to low hanging fruit or hidden gems. Some refinery equipment performs better than design, and for various reasons others perform worse. Good test run data allows seasoned engineers to quickly identify what equipment needs investment and what equipment can be exploited. This way, solutions are developed that direct capital expense in the right areas and overspending is avoided. In one example, pressure drop measurements of a long crude oil transfer pipe showed the line could be reused, saving millions of dollars. Contact us today to learn how PCS’ proven methods can help you do more with less in your next revamp.

Projections for global supply and demand of refined products vary greatly depending on the pace of technological progress and degree of government policy enforcement associated with reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Without major advances in technology, it is hard to imagine a future without conventional fossil fuels over the next decade or two. Based on history, continued rationalization of refining assets is likely. Small, low-complexity refineries will struggle, while large, complex ones will thrive. Capacity creep through gradual improvement of refining units will continue to be a differentiating characteristic for remaining players. Focused revamps will play a critical role. Post-pandemic, inflation and a shortage of skilled construction labor have dramatically increased costs for refinery revamps. It is becoming increasingly difficult for many projects to meet corporate return on investment thresholds.

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legacy crude mix with an equal amount of anything offered without looking into contaminants and their impact on prod- uct yields. Phosphor and metal content of co-processed biofeeds should be monitored to avoid accelerated catalyst deac- tivation; the FFA and chlorine content needs to be tracked to reduce corrosion risk; and polyethylene should be limited to avoid equipment plugging. Special attention is required when co-processing feeds without pretreatment, not so much because the contaminant level is higher than pre- treated feeds, but because contaminant content tends to fluctuate more in untreated feeds. Storage is also a risk area: vegetable oils and animal fats should be stored as cool as possible to minimise thermal degradation, but warm enough to avoid solidification. In addition, contact with water, especially oxygen, during stor- age should be avoided. Somewhat less critical but nevertheless not to be neglected is the fatty acid structure of the co-processed biofeed. A higher content of C 18 + acid chains will increase the cloud point of the product, and hydrogen consumption will be affected by the content of unsaturates in the triglyc- eride structure. A Ranoo Pathak, Technical Service Specialist, Topsoe, RAPK@topsoe.com Co-processing renewables into traditional fossil units brings operational challenges. This can sometimes result in unpre- dictable cycle performance, mainly driven by variable feed quality, different reaction chemistry versus fossil feed, and insufficiently adapted monitoring. Controlling this requires a focused approach to feed management, a tailored catalyst system, an operating strategy, and better monitoring. The renewable feed quality can vary from batch to batch. To ensure the unit receives as stable a feed quality as pos- sible, clear limits on the co-processing share are required based on available hydrogen, reactor temperatures, and the target cycle length. In addition, strict limits on feed speci - fications for water, oxygen content, TAN, contaminants (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Si, P, Cl), solids, and polymers/gums are essential. Off-spec feeds (for example, higher contaminant levels) must either be rejected or processed at reduced co- processing rates. In parallel, renewable feeds should be stored under nitro - gen blanketing to limit oxidation and gum formation, which can lead to equipment fouling. Where possible, tanks with capability should be used to smooth out batch-to-batch quality swings. Having a clear derating strategy (i.e., allow- able renewables) share as a function of feed quality param - eters helps avoid sudden cycle deterioration. Much of the unpredictability in the performance cycle is linked to faster catalyst deactivation and pressure drop build-up due to high reactivity of the renewable feeds, as well as high levels of contaminants and other impurities. Robust front-end protection is therefore critical. High- efficiency filtration upstream from the reactor helps minimise solids entering the unit. Within the reactor, achieving the tar- geted cycle length and stable operation requires a compre- hensive catalyst system consisting of specialised renewable

grading catalysts with improved water tolerance and opti- mised hydrogenation activity, followed by HDS/HDN and, where relevant, selective dewaxing catalysts. Operating strategy must be revisited for renewables. Co-processing renewables increases hydrogen consump- tion and exotherm. Therefore, sufficient hydrogen partial pressure must be maintained to avoid local hydrogen starva- tion and coke formation. Reactor inlet temperature and bed ΔT should be closely controlled; where available, inter-bed quench should be used to limit hot spots. Change in the co- processing share should be made gradually, rather than in step changes. Finally, robust monitoring and process controls are key enablers. Regular tracking of feed composition (including renewable share and contaminants), reactor pressure drop and ΔT, hydrogen consumption, hydrogen partial pressure, recycle gas composition, and product quality enables early detection of abnormal trends. Process controls maintain the unit to operate within a safe envelope by adjusting the renewable co-processing ratio and severity against con- straints such as temperature limits, ΔP trend, hydrogen par - tial pressure, and gas-to-oil ratio. In practice, stabilising cycle performance when co‑pro - cessing renewables can be achieved by regulating feed quality, a tailored catalyst system, an appropriate operating strategy, and continuous monitoring. Q What is needed to scale up chemical recycling of waste- plastic pyrolysis oils to the 10-30% range? A Ignacio Fabian Costa, Licensing Manager, IFCO@ topsoe.com and Dmitry Kuzmichev, Technical Service Specialist, DKU@topsoe.com, Topsoe Scaling chemical recycling of waste-plastic pyrolysis oils (PPO) to the 10-30% range requires overcoming both tech - nological and economic barriers across the entire value chain. While upgrading technologies such as Topsoe’s PureStep have reached full commercial maturity, the main constraints now lie upstream in the continuous, economical production of high-quality pyrolysis oil and in broader market conditions surrounding steam cracking and plastic recycling. One of the biggest bottlenecks today is achieving con- tinuous, industrial-scale, and energy-efficient pyrolysis oil production. Many existing pyrolysis technologies scale by adding more identical trains rather than increasing throughput per unit. This leads to higher Capex without true economies of scale, which limits cost competitiveness and restricts the total volume of PPO available for upgrad- ing. There are many promising technologies evolving, and hopefully, in the upcoming years, this will gradually become less of a constraint. A second, often underestimated challenge is logistics and siting. To supply a world-scale pyrolysis plant, large volumes of waste plastic have to be collected and transported to one location. The alternative approach, many smaller, local pyrolysis units, reduces waste transport distances but then requires transporting PPO to centralised upgrading and steam cracking hubs. Either way, there is a trade-off between transporting low-density, heterogeneous solid waste and

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transporting higher-value but unstable PPO to upgrading facilities. Optimising this logistics network is essential for both economic and environmental performance, and it is not yet fully solved at scale. To integrate high levels of PPO into conventional steam crackers, upgrading of the PPO quality is essential. There are many technologies available for upgrading, each with its own limitations and opportunities. Against this back- drop, PureStep upgrades PPO through hydroprocessing. The technology has already been proven with two operat- ing commercial units at SABIC and OMV in Europe, both producing fully on-spec, contaminant-free PPO feedstock used in existing crackers. From a technology readiness per- spective, upgrading is no longer the bottleneck (PureStep has reached TRL 9). The hydroprocessing-based upgrad- ing route has key benefits: • It scales (i.e., the larger the unit, the lower the processing cost per ton). • It produces a PPO on-spec that does not require blending with fossil feedstock. • It can transform PPO to naphtha-range material, avoiding major revamps on steam cracker furnaces, so that once PPO is available at sufficient scale and quality, existing cracker assets can absorb 10-30% circular feedstocks with ease. However, even with mature technologies, project econom- ics and policy remain major barriers. Today, ethane crackers can produce ethylene at roughly half the cost of many naph- tha crackers, making large investments in naphtha-based circular pathways difficult under current market margins. At the same time, the industry is facing tariffs, regional overcapacity, and generally low margins in base chemicals, which makes it harder to secure attractive returns on large Capex projects. In this context, reaching the 10-30% range is not only about the technology, but also creating conditions under which long-term investments in pyrolysis, logistics, and upgrading can deliver acceptable risk-adjusted returns. A Mel Larson, Advisor, Becht, mlarson@becht.com Scaling up chemical recycling via plastic pyrolysis requires the recovery of plastics, separation, and production to a vol- ume that is sustainable for the system. This issue is inher- ently complex because it must be evaluated across the entire energy and process lifecycle. Pyrolysis oils typically contain contaminants, such as metals, chlorides, and elements, that poison conventional refinery catalyst systems. In addition, pyrolysis is an oxygen/hydrogen-deficient pro - cess. As a result, the pyrolysis gas is not immediately suitable as a refinery feedstock and requires further processing to make an acceptable feedstock. When the full energy balance and carbon footprint are considered, economics become a critical constraint. Economics in some credit form is neces- sary to allow a return on the required investment. A Danny Verboekend, Chief Scientific Officer, Zeopore Technologies, danny.verboekend@zeopore.com The chemical conversion of waste plastics typically involves three steps in which the plastic polymer structures are reduced in size, with the target to return to viable chemi- cal building blocks: ideally, the same monomers from which

they were first composed. Hence, making ethylene from polyethylene and propylene from polypropylene. These three steps are: • Pyrolysis (yielding light gases, oils, vapours, and char). • Upgrading of the pyrolysis oils. • Upgrading of the pyrolysis vapours. Thermal pyrolysis is generally the most used process to start the chemical breakdown of waste polymers into desired species. Although many developments have been achieved, pyrolysis needs to be done at very high temperatures, and the amount of undesired products (char and light gases) is still significant, negatively affecting the productivity of any potential follow-up conversion of the oils or vapours. Using zeolite-based catalysts, the pyrolysis of waste plas- tics can be executed at lower temperatures and, importantly, boost the yields of desired products. Also, in the upgrading of pyrolysis vapours and oils, zeolite-based catalyst have shown, typically on pure virgin plastic feedstocks, outstand- ing potential. However, to scale up such technology, several challenges exist. First, the complexity and variety of plastic polymers imply a plethora of contaminants, which complicates the cost-effective use of the catalyst, especially for catalytic pyrolysis. Results based on pure virgin waste plastics have proven simply not relevant to the dirty, complex nature of real-world waste streams. Secondly, the large nature of plastic polymer and the reac- tivity of the derived vapours or oils make traditional zeolites yield suboptimal performance. Here, the challenge is first designing a superior, premium-performance zeolite and sec- ond ensuring that the premium zeolite is scalable. As com- municated in PTQ , mesoporous zeolites offer great potential to boost the performance of catalytic conversion of waste plastics or derived intermediates.¹ 1 Du Mong, K, Verboekend, D., Low-cost mesoporous zeolites deliver catalytic benefits, PTQ Catalysis 2022, pp.45-49 , Q How can refiners cost-effectively play a role in the structural shift from fuels to polyolefins production? A Hernando Salgado, Technical Service Manager, BASF, hernando.salgado@basf.com The refining process technology with the highest degree of flexibility is perhaps fluid catalytic cracking (FCC). Refineries with an FCC unit can take advantage of its intrinsic flexibility to shift from fuels maximisation (mainly gasoline compo- nents) to maximising the production of petrochemical build- ing blocks, such as propylene and ethylene, which are the main raw materials to produce polyolefins. It must be noted that a downstream polymerisation process would be needed to convert these light olefins into polyolefins. Typically, the most common way to shift fuels (gasoline) to light olefins in an FCC unit is by using an olefin additive based on ZSM-5 zeolite, which acts as a secondary cata- lyst that, when properly combined with the primary zeolite Y-based catalyst, can easily boost light olefins production. The impact of this catalytic system can be explained by using a two-step approach (see Figure 1 ) as follows:

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Hydroprocessing Catalysts Powered by CLG Expertise

CLG delivers decades of hydroprocessing expertise and R&D innovation in every catalyst system we engineer. Our advanced catalyst platforms are field-proven in the most demanding operating conditions, enabling refiners to achieve higher conversion, extended run lengths, and reliable production of cleaner, higher-value products—even from the toughest feedstocks. And with CLG’s industry-leading technical services supporting every deployment, refiners can operate with complete confidence.

Fundamentally, however, refiners are limited in their ability to drive a true structural shift toward polyolefins. The polyolefins market already carries significant sunk capi - tal in purpose-built assets, particularly propane dehydro- genation (PDH) units, which provide ample supplies of propylene. In addition, mixed butenes production is already sufficient to meet current mar - ket demand. While operational adjust- ments, such as naphtha recycle to the FCC riser, are

Step 1

Step 2

Fuel Gas LPG LCO HCO Coke Gasoline

C2= C3= C4=

FCC feed

Zeolite-Y FCC b ase catalyst: p rimary reactions

ZSM-5, Zeolite ZSM-5 (olefins additive): s econdary reactions

High conversion to olefins precursors (light naphtha) Maximum b ottoms upgrading (optimised z eolite/ m atrix) High surface area to minimise activity dilution by ZSM-5 Coke selectivity and metals passivation functionalities for residue processing

Maximum olens Minimum base catalyst activity dilution Chemical and mechanical stability Good unit retention

Figure 1 Basic representation of an FCC catalytic system to shift gasoline to light olefins

u Conversion of feed molecules into light olefins precur - sors, mainly light naphtha-range molecules : This step is catalysed by zeolite-Y-based catalysts (also called base cata- lyst), the characteristics of which will depend on the specific feed properties, other unit targets, and process conditions. v Conversion of light naphtha precursors into light ole - fins : This step is catalysed by the ZSM-5 zeolite in the olefin additive. The concentration of this secondary catalyst in the unit inventory can range from 5 to 25%, typically depend- ing on the desired level of light olefins maximisation or on already existing limitations in the downstream units. Hydrogen transfer in the base catalyst is also a key factor to consider in light olefins maximisation. Directionally speak - ing, a base catalyst with lower hydrogen transfer is better to produce olefinic intermediates for ZSM-5 cracking, as well as to preserve light olefins already created. Other factors to consider when shifting fuels to light olefins in an FCC unit are the following: • Feed properties : Lighter feeds favour light olefins produc - tion over gasoline. • Unit severity : Increased reactor outlet temperature and catalyst-to-oil-ratio. • Hydrocarbon partial pressure : Reducing hydrocarbon partial pressure by injecting steam in the reaction environ- ment also contributes to increasing light olefins production at expense of gasoline. • Unit design : Contact time, type of reactor, presence or not of a secondary riser for naphtha, among other design features. By applying these bespoke concepts, a refiner can easily shift the fuel production, in this case shifting from gasoline to polyolefins building blocks, mainly propylene. The degree of shifting will depend on the specific unit limitations down - stream from the FCC reactor, as well as the level of Capex investment to adapt the FCC unit and downstream facilities to accommodate higher production of light olefins. A Mel Larson, Advisor, Becht, mlarson@becht.com From a refinery perspective, the only unit capable of produc - ing polyolefin precursors in a cost-effective manner is the FCC unit. FCC technology can generate propylene and light olefins as secondary products while still fulfilling its primary role in fuels production.

technically feasible and practised in regions such as India and the Asia-Pacific, these strategies do not materially change the overall supply-demand balance. Incremental increases in olefin production from refineries risk oversupplying an already well-served market. As a result, refiners can only play a marginal, opportunistic role rather than leading a structural shift. FCC-based olefins production can complement petrochemical supply when economics align. However, it does not represent a scalable or transformative pathway for refiners to pivot away from fuels toward polyolefins in a cost-effective manner. A Danny Verboekend, Chief Scientific Officer, Zeopore Technologies, danny.verboekend@zeopore.com The refiner’s shift to produce polyolefins instead of fuels involves the synthesis of chemical building blocks, typically of ethylene or propylene The synthesis of such small ole- fins is ideally done with the highest efficiency and the least amount of steps. Hence, the nature of the refinery feedstock will dictate the most cost-effective route. For fossil oil-based refineries, small olefin yields may be boosted by using olefin-targeted FCC or, perhaps even bet - ter, more specific crude-to-chemical technologies, both being largely based on zeolite-catalysed cracking. Also, for larger circular biomass-derived hydrocarbon feedstocks, such as oils and waxes (and related hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids [HEFA]), such catalytic processes may be used. In contrast, circular C 1 carbon streams (syngas, methane, or methanol) may be grown to C 2 and C 3 olefins. In the latter scenario, the conversion of alcohols to olefins plays a cen - tral role and can be achieved using established processes such as methanol-to-olefins and methanol-to-propylene). Importantly, in addition to catalytic cracking, zeolites also play a pivotal role in these applications to attain a high yield of olefins. For zeolite-catalysed downsizing or growing of hydro- carbons, a large potential to increase the cost-effectiveness has been established over the last decade. It has been (aca- demically) proven that, for virtually any reaction involving a hydrocarbon, the narrow zeolitic micropores offer a plethora of benefits catalytically; however, they also offer access and transport limitations, hampering their catalytic performance.

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More accessible (mesoporous) zeolites alleviate such lim- itations and sizably enhance the yield to olefins in cracking reactions, as well as boost catalyst lifetime and olefin selec - tivity in methanol conversions. Hence, the use of premium zeolite catalysts can play a large role in the cost-effective shift of refineries away from fuels and towards chemicals such as (poly)olefins. Of course, such premium zeolite per - formance only makes sense if these zeolites can be scaled cost-effectively. Q What hydrogen production and recovery strategies are needed for expanded hydroprocessing operations? A Jumal Shah, Hydrogen Market Manager, Jumal.shah@ matthey.com, and Paul Clark, Digital Transformation Director, Catalyst Technologies, paul.clark@matthey.com, Johnson Matthey As hydroprocessing capacity expands, hydrogen demand rises sharply, requiring refiners to adopt integrated strat - egies for both production and recovery. Steam methane reforming (SMR) remains the dominant technology for on- site production. The ability of a hydrogen production unit to increase production rate is dependent on the bottlenecks of the plant. facilitates the creation of niche premium fuels, such as XP100 (100 RON gasoline), enabling Indian refiners to cater to high-performance segments while maximising refinery flexibility. In the current E20 ethanol blending scenario (EBMS), Octamax enhances octane levels in gasoline without increasing oxygen content. This ensures compliance with renewable Generally, increasing rates by up to 5% may be possible by changing to higher-performance catalysts and opti - mising operating conditions. Where hydrogen demand has increased by up to 20%, a revamp of the hydrogen plant may be necessary to consider options such as pre- reformers, structured SMR catalysts, new reformer tubes type, gas-heated reformers, and additional pressure swing adsorption beds. For larger-scale changes in hydrogen demand, sites will need to consider the addition of a new hydrogen produc - tion unit. Decarbonisation goals and local policies drive the requirements to consider sustainable solutions. In regions with an abundant source of low-cost natural gas and strin - gent legislation, hydrogen production with carbon cap - ture and storage (CCS) is an option. Newer flowsheets are increasing based on autothermal reformers (ATR), because the produced CO₂ is at process pressure and no flue gas is generated like in an SMR-based flowsheet. The testing results show that while octane loss remains unavoidable when meeting lower sulphur targets, OctaMax improves desulphurisation activity, enabling refiners to achieve these targets at lower operating temperatures. By operating at lower temperatures, OctaMax could result in longer cycle lengths while also reducing energy demand and associated CO₂ emissions. At the same time, its ability to preserve octane protects refinery profits, while the use of regenerated catalysts supports broader sustainability goals. This makes CO₂ more cost-effective to remove and cap - ture. Meanwhile, electrolysis powered by renewable energy is also emerging as a viable option for producing green hydrogen on a smaller scale, particularly where low-cost renewable electricity is available. Optimising these systems and designing hydroprocessing units to minimise purge losses can significantly cut operating costs and improve sustainability. Beyond hardware, digital solutions are playing a growing role. AI-driven hydrogen network management and digital twins allow real-time optimisation of supply and demand across multiple units, while predictive analytics help forecast consumption and prevent bottlenecks. Ultimately, a com - bination of low-carbon production technologies, advanced recovery systems, and smart process optimisation will be key to meeting rising hydrogen requirements while control - ling emissions and costs. Evonik Ryan Seyler and Dan Miskin Contact : ryan.seyler@evonik.com Henry Z Kister is a Fluor Corp. Senior Fellow and Director of Fractionation Technology. He has more than 35 years of experience in design, trou- bleshooting, revamping, field consulting, control, and start-up of frac - tionation processes and equipment. He has authored three books, the Distillation Equipment chapter in Perry’s Handbook , and about 150 articles. He has taught the IChemE-sponsored Practical Distillation Technology course more than 550 times in 26 countries, and a recent Troubleshooting Distillation Controls course, also sponsored by IChemE. A recipient of several awards, he obtained BE and ME degrees from the University of NSW in Australia. He has been serving on the FRI Technical Advisory and Design Practices Committees for more than 25 years. talarir@indianoil.in Satyen Kumar Das dassk5@indianoil.in R K Kaushik Singha kaushik_singha@indianoil.in Alok Sharma sharmaa@indianoil.in to fresh catalyst while delivering cost savings through extended cycle lengths and reduced changeout needs, with the added benefit of lowering landfill waste, reducing demand for mined raw materials, and improving the over - all lifecycle footprint of refining operations – all without sacrificing fuel quality. Final thoughts By operating at lower temperatures, OctaMax could result in longer cycle lengths while also reducing energy demand and associated CO₂ emissions Daniel Hussman is a Senior Process Engineer at the Parkland Burnaby Refinery in Burnaby, BC Canada, responsible for process improvement and yield optimisation of a crude distillation unit, as well as the entire naphtha and diesel blocks. He has more than 15 years of experience in process troubleshooting, debottlenecking, solution implementation, risk management, and reliability improvement. He has authored four technical publications and is a member of the Canadian Crude Quality Technical Association. He holds a BSc in chemical engineering and an MSc in transport phenomena and separation processes from Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran. environmental specifications using a specific regenerated catalyst without additional octane penalties compared to fresh alternatives. For markets where the price spread between low- and high-octane gasoline is significant, this selectivity provides direct commercial benefits. Regeneration and sustainability Historically, regenerated catalysts have rarely been con - sidered for FCC gasoline HDS because of the demanding selectivity requirements. OctaMax overcomes this limita - tion by combining tailored regeneration techniques with optimised formulations for uniquely selected CoMo cata - lysts. Testing confirmed that regenerated OctaMax deliv - ers improved activity while matching the octane selectivity of existing alternatives. This advance opens the door for refiners to take advan - tage of the reduced cost and sustainability benefits of catalyst reuse in FCC gasoline HDS units. For example, catalyst reuse offers a significantly lower-cost alternative Conclusion Octamax is an innovative solution for producing BS-VI-compliant regular and premium gasoline. By converting low-value cracked C₄ streams, traditionally routed to the LPG pool, into an oxygen-free, high-octane, olefin-rich product, it enables direct blending into the gasoline pool, subject to olefin content constraints. With a high BRON, it provides a significant octane buffer, allowing refiners to upgrade low-RON naphtha, which not only enhances gasoline volume but also offers a tangible opportunity to improve GRMs. Octamax boosts production capacity and ethanol blending targets and sustainability goals while maintaining fuel quality standards. The technology expands the base gasoline pool and allows for maximum ethanol blending, making it a strategic enabler for refiners in producing compliant and economically viable gasoline blends. Following its success at Mathura Refinery, two grassroots units of capacity 110 kTA and 102 kTA are in the advanced stage of implementation in India, with scheduled commissioning by 2026. Abdullah Abufara is a process engineer at the Parkland Burnaby Refinery, with significant knowledge and experience in producing renewable fuels and co-processing biofeedstocks in diesel hydrotreating and FCC units. He holds a BSc from the American University of Sharjah, UAE, and an MSc from the University of Saskatchewan, Canada. As global specifications tighten and competitive pres - sures grow, technologies that align compliance, per - formance, and sustainability will become increasingly essential. Octane has long been a key measure of fuel quality, and it remains an important factor for refiners as they navigate the balance between environmental compli - ance and commercial performance. Josh Donohue is a process engineer at the Parkland Burnaby Refinery, supporting the Splitter (crude), naphtha and distillate hydrotreating, and catalytic reforming units. He has three years of experience in the oil and gas industry and obtained a BSc in chemical engineering with distinc- tion from the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Prosenjit Maji majip@indianoil.in Pushkar Varshney varshneyp@indianoil.in Talari Raju Komi Chandi is a senior process engineer at the Parkland Burnaby Refinery, and has worked on several refinery technologies. He has held various roles in process engineering, including process troubleshooting and debottlenecking. This article is based on a presentation at The Distillation Symposium of the AIChE Meeting, Houston, TX, Spring 2023. References 1 Kister H Z, P M Mathias, D E Steinmeyer, W R Penney, V S Monical, J R Fair, Equipment for distillation, gas absorption, phase dispersion and phase separation, in D W Green and R H Perry Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook 9th Ed., Sec 14, McGraw Hill, New York, 2018. 2 Kister H Z, Use Quantitative gamma scans to troubleshoot maldistri- bution on trays, Chem. Eng. Progr. , February 2013. 3 Harrison M E, Gamma scan evaluation for distillation column debottle- necking, Chem. Eng. Prog. 86 (3), pp.37-44, March 1990. 4 Kister H Z, Is the Hydraulic Gradient on Sieve and Valve trays Negligible? Paper presented at the Topical Conference on Distillation, AIChE Meeting, Houston, Texas, 2012. 5 Kister H Z, M Olsson, An investigation of premature flooding in a dis - tillation column, Chem. Eng. , p.29, January 2019. 6 Wang W, A P Watkinson, Iron Sulphide and Coke Fouling from Sour Oils: Review and Initial Parameters , Proceedings of International Conference on Heat Exchanger Fouling and Cleaning 2011 Crete Island, Greece, June 5-10, 2011. Gordon Bruce is the Manager of Blending and Shipping Operations at the Parkland Burnaby Refinery. With 20 years of experience, he has held roles in process engineering, production supply, and turnaround operations. He holds a Bachelor of chemical engineering from Dalhousie University in Halifax NS.

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Resiliency of fossil-based feedstocks … Catalysis Q&A ... Incorporating new technology and tools for catalyst development … FCC co-processing of biogenic and recyclable feedstocks: Part I … Passivating vanadium in FCC operations … Hybrid catalyst loading reduces fill cost and carbon footprint … Catalyst rejuvenation offers circular solution for hydroprocessing catalysts … Catalyst technology for maximum light olefins and ultra-low emissions … Experimental study on diesel fuel haziness … Troubleshooting low or high regenerator temperatures … Zeopore is making its mark in green applications through zeolite modification. Q1 2024 Issue of PTQ

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